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BULLETIN

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Wor. AY. SALEM: JAN., Fes., Marcu, 1889. Nos. 1-2-3.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRANGON VULGARIS.

Tuirp Parer,! with Puates I, II, III.

BY J. S. KINGSLEY, SC.D.

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL AND ITS APPENDAGES.

In the preceding account( Vol. xv, pp. 109-138, pl. 1,
figs. 7,8 and 9) may be found a descriptien of the process
of gastrulation in Crangon, together with a summary of the
then existing literature of the development of the germ
layers in the Arthropods. ‘To this account I would here
add a few supplementary remarks, bringing the subject
down to the date of writing and also correcting my own
observations in the light of my later studies.

Since the article referred to was in type, several papers
on Arthropod development have appeared, which have a
bearing upon the points discussed. Jirst is that of Morin
(787), on the development of spiders belonging to the

1 Continued from the Bulletin of the Essex Institute, Vol. xviIr,
pages 99-158. 1886. Published May, 1887. The numbering of the
figures on the accompanying plates is consecutive with that of the
preceding part of this series,

(1)

2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

genera Theridion, Pholcus, Drassus and Lycosa,—a paper
the points of which appear to fully support the views which
were advanced in the discussion. In brief, according to
Morin, the nucleus of segmentation in the eggs studied by
himlies at the centre of the egg and not until the third seg-
mentation does the yolk segment. The segmentation is
perfectly regular and not until the one hundred and twen-
ty-eight-cell stage is reached, do the nuclei and surround-
ing protoplasm reach the surface and form the blastoderm,
at which time they separate from the yolk pyramids, which
now again forms an unnucleated homogeneous mass. The
blastoderm now thickens upon the ventral surface, and
from its centre cells are budded inwards, some of which re-
main between the parent cells and the yolk, while others
sink into the yolk itself. As will readily be seen this pro-
cess, which gives rise to both meso- and entoderm, is easily
brought into full accord with the gastrulation in Crangon,
and other types. Morin does not regard the “ primitive
cumulus ” as of importance in the formation of the germ
layers, since, in his experience, it does not arise until after
they are formed ; indeed it does not appear at any stage in
Theridion. The entoderm nuclei sink into the yolk where
they remain distinct — much as I have described them in
Limulus (785, p. 530, figs. 45 and 47) —until shortly be-
fore hatching.

Schimkewitsch, who has also published his complete
paper(’87) on the development of Arachnida, differs con-
siderably from Morin in his interpretations. He thinks
that only a portion of the products of segmentation migrates
to the surface to form the blastoderm, the others remaining
behind to form polynuclear yolk pyramids (not seen by
Morin) which represent the entoderm. The early appear-
ance of the primitive cumulus and the white spot are in-
terpreted by Schimkewitsch as indicating the limit of meso-

*

CRANGON VULGARIS. 3

dermal extension, and he regards the latter as limating the
posterior extension of the potential blastopore, and forming
the anal lobe, while the white spot (tache blanchdtre)is the
cephalic end of the future embryo. The mesoderm has a
varying origin, according to his text. In some forms it
arises from the blastoderm, much as described by Morin,
while in, others it is produced by budding from the poly-
nuclear yolk pyramids. The plates, however, (lo not seem
conclusive on the latter point but are apparently capable of
being interpreted after the manner of Morin. <A recon-
ciliation of their different accounts of the origin of the en-
toderm is, however, more difficult. Schimkewitsch studied
Agalena, Lycosa, Pholeus, Epeira and Tegenaria.

Josef Nusbaum has given(’87) a brief account of some
of the earlier stages of the development of Myszs chameleo,
but if we are to accept his interpretations of his observa-
-tions, his description of the origin of the germ layers is
not easily reconciled with what is known of the coenogeny
in any other arthropod. He says that the egg before seg-
mentation is surrounded by a blastema and has its nucleus
at the formative pole. The first segmentation produces
two cells, one of which gives rise to the blastoderm, while
the other sinks into the yolk. The larger central cells of
the blastoderm later bud off other cells which also sink into
the yolk and together with the products of the division of the
first cell migrating to that region give rise to “ vitellophags”
the function of which is the modification of the yolk. Now
first appear the rudiments of the germ, the figure which
he gives closely resembling my fig. 10. At this time a
shallow invagination(cf. my fig. 231, af) takes place in the
caudal area, and the invaginated cells, undergoing a rapid
proliferation, froma solid entoderm. Then, behind the
point of invagination the abdomen is budded forth. The
“yitellophags”(to which we shall return later in the present

4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

paper), at first lie just beneath the germinal area but later
sink into the yolk, where they finally disappear without tak-
ing part in the formation of any organ of the adult. The
mesoderm is said to arise from cells budded inwards from
the germinal bands.

Nusbaum’s account is confessedly preliminary and in de-
fault of figures of the sections on which he bases his con-
clusions, I should have more hesitation in assuming that
he had confused the parts of his embryos toa great extent,
were it not that a similar fatality had characterized his work
in other forms(c/. Whitman, ’86, Clepsine ; Grosglik, ’87,
Oniscus, etc.) If, as I have suggested in another place,'
we assume that Nusbaum has regarded the abdominal flex-
ure as the blastopore, a portion of his results are readily
harmonized with those of other students. As will be no-
ticed, from his abstract given above, he places the position
of the blastopore 7n front of the place where the abdomen
is subsequently to form. But,so far as I recall, not a sin-
gle other observer agrees with him in this respect. The
universal concurrence of opinion, among those who have
carefully studied the subject is, that in the Podophthalmia
at least, the blastopore is behind the tip of the abdomen.
The early stages of the formation of the abdominal flexure
certainly do simulate an invagination and have apparently
been interpreted by Ishikawa(’85)as the first inpushing of
the proctodeum, to which reference will again be made.
In sections of eggs which have undergone contraction dur-
ing the hardening processes, the space between the folds of
the ventral abdominal ectoderm is obliterated, and Nusbaum
may have readily interpreted the tissues thus pushed in as
a solid entederm. Ifthe position here taken be valid, all
of Nusbaum’s other conclusions as to the germinal layers

1 American Naturalist, xx1, p. 294, March, 1887.

California Academy of Sciences

Presented by

December 22 (O08.

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CRANGON VULGARIS. 5

need revision. He gives a transverse section of his em-
bryo, the figure closely resembling fig. 31 of the present
paper, and refers to the deeper cells as mesoderm. If they
arise, as he claims, by budding from the outer layer cells,
it is probable that he is dealing with nervous, rather than
mesodermal, tissues. It is, however, more probable that
in Mysis, as in other forms, these are true mesodermal cells
and have attained their present position by a forward growth
in the same way as will be presently described for Crangon.
The tate of the vitellophags will be mentioned later.

The observations of F. H. Herrick (?86) upon the de-
velopment of Alpheus record a state of affairs, so far as
gastrulation and origin of the mesoderm are concerned,
which is readily comparable with that of Crangon.

Dr. A. T. Bruce, in his complete paper (’87), is more in
accord with the Hertwigs, than was apparent in his prelimi-
nary communication (’86) referred to in the second part of
this paper. In regard to the formation of the entoderm in
Thyridopteryx, this is even more so than in the other forms
which he studied. He regards, in all forms, the yolk cells
as true entoderm, with vitellophagous functions, and be-
lieves the functional entoderm to be of later origin.

Reinhard has recently (?87) restudied Porcellio scaber,
and his results are in fair accord with the interpretation of
Bobretzky’s researches given in the preceding part of this
paper. Reinhard concludes that the egg-nucleus divides,
and that some of the resulting nuclei, with a portion of the
protoplasm, form amceboid cells, which gradually creep to
the surface. The resulting blastoderm, is not at first con-
tinuous, but consists of “islands” (¢f. Bobretzky, ?74, pl.
XxI, figs. 3 and 7). The undifferentiated cells, which re-
main behind, form the primary entoderm, which soon be-
comes differentiated into ento- and mesoderm.

Cholodovsky (88) says that, in Llatia germanica, the

6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

differentiation of the entoderm forms the lower layer cells
until after the closure of the primitive groove, and that
then it separates from the mesoderm-entoderm, and later,
envelopes the whole yolk. The“ yolk cells ” form no part
of the permanent entoderm, but rather play the part of
vitellophags.

BLasTororE and Anus.—In stage A (fig. 10; section,
fig. 9) is shown the process of gastrulation. In describing
this stage (ante, p. 138), I pointed out that the blastopore
was clearly behind the point where the abdomen was sub-
sequently to be formed, but said that I was unable to ascer-
tain whether any definite relationship existed between the
blastopore and the anus. A subsequent section, I regard
as throwing light upon this point. It is shown in fig. 29,
and passes in an obliquely longitudinal direction through
the inner edge of the optic lobes, the ventral bands, and
through the thoracico-abdominal area. In the latter re-
gion, it cuts through two pits, the anterior and larger being
the abdominal flexure (af), while behind it is a second
and smaller pit, which certainly becomes the proctodeum
and which I now regard as being at the same time in the
position of the blastopore. In other words, the blastopore
occupies the same position as the anus and may be actually
identical with it.

A comparison of this figure with Ishikawa’s (’85) fig.
62 seems to lend countenance to the view that he has in-
terpreted the abdominal flexure as proctodeum. I regard
that depression in his figure, behind the letters “ab” as the
real anus and as homologous with the similar depression in
my figure cited. In support of this view, I would point out
that in both Astacus(Reichenbach, ’86) and Crangon (vide
onfra), the anus is at first on the dorsal and only later at-
tains the position on the ventralsurface, which it has in the
adult of all Crustacea.

CRANGON VULGARIS. 7

As to the identity of the position of the blastopore, with
that of the anus, a word more may be said. The relations
of the mesoderm and especially of the entoderm cells, show
that the two openings cannot be very far removed from
each other, as can be seen from a comparison of fig. 29
with figs. 8 and 9 of the preceding part of the paper. Reich-
enbach claims in Astacus (’86) that the anus is formed
a little in front of the place where the blastopore closed,
but his figures do not seem to me to fully support him in
this point. They rather seem to leave the matter undecided
as to absolute identity of position, with the chances in fa-
vor of an even closer approximation than the lettering of
his fig. 7a would indicate. For all that text or illustrations
indicate, the “leader ” from “A,” in the figure quoted, seems
to be arbitrary in position, while if the letters, “7. Abd.
F” be rightly placed in his fig. 39, there is no room between
the blastopore and the abdominal flexure for the anus to
form. A comparison of these figures with his 49 and 50
do not help the matter in the least. Mayer, in his account
of the development of Eupagurus (’77),' thinks that the
anus forms in the position where the blastopore closed,
while the fact that Bobretzky at first stated that the blasto-
pore persisted, as the anus, astatement which he later cor-
rected (774, p. 186) ,—shows that the two in Astacus must
be nearly, if not quite, identical in position. Still Reichen-
bach’s statement (e. g. 786, pp. 42 and 43) is very explicit,
and should not be set aside without more evidence.

ENnTODERM.—The entoderm cells at this stage are com-
paratively few in number. They are sparsely and very ir-

' Mayer says in effect (l.c., p. 237), that invagination gives rise, not
to a true entoderm but to both proctodeal and entodermal tissue. The
whole of the hind-gut arises from the invagination, while the cells,
which bud from the invagination and pass into the yolk, form the ento-
derm. This of course is confirmative of the view quoted in the text.

8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

regularly scattered through the yolk but still remain closer
together near the region of their origin. Each nucleus is
deeply and nearly evenly stained, the chromatin reticulum
showing less plainly than in the mesoderm or ectoderm
cells, a peculiarity which, however, is lost in the later
stages.! Each nucleus is surrounded by a thin layer of
slightly staining protoplasm which sends off delicate pseu-
dopodal processes between the masses of the yolk. I have
never been able to see that the yolk was divided into
masses corresponding to these nuclei, as is the case in Lim-
ulus (self, °85) but in Crangon each nucleus and the proto-
plasm surrounding it apparently form the entire cell, the
yolk being something external and intercellular. Reinhard
(87) came to the same conclusion with regard to the ento-
derm cells in Porcellio. After the first formation of the ento-
derm by invagination, the resulting cells in Crangon lose
their continuity and not until a comparatively late stage,
do they again attain the condition of a layer. The large
entoderm cells filled with yolk or the secondary yolk
pyramids, described and figured by both Bobretzky and
Reichenbach in Astacus, do not exist in Crangon. The yolk,
it is true, is divided into masses or spheres of varying size
but in a very irregular manner, and the nuclei so far as I
have been able to discover bear no relation to these. Cran-
gon, as has been said before, is more like Palemon than
like Astacus inits lacking a lumen to the mid-gut, but it dif-
fers from Bobretzky’s figures of Palemon in the irregu-
larity with which the entodermal nuclei are arranged in all

1 It hardly needs to be said that in order to more clearly distinguish
between the different germinal layers beyond that afforded by the
colors, I have adopted a conventional method of representing the com-
ponent cells and nuclei in the general figures. In the more detailed
drawings, however, I have endeavored to represent the exact histolog-
ical appearance so far as the reproductive process would allow.

CRANGON VULGARIS. 9

stages as well as in the distinctness of the cells from the
central yolk.

After the present stage the changes in the arrangement
and character of the entodermal cells are comparatively
slight, excepting an increase in number, until a much later
stage in the development. They remain scattered irregu-
larly through the yolk and but slowly take a peripheral po-
sition. Atall stages until shortly before hatching they are
closer together in the neighborhood of the proctodeum than
elsewhere. With these remarks I will leave the further
description of the entoderm until it begins to form itself
into organs, allowing the figures to speak for themselves.
I have no actual evidence as to migration among these cells
other than that afforded by sections. At the time of gas-
trulation (fig. 9) the yolk is free from nuclei while later
they are scattered through it, a fact which would seem to
necessitate migration from the point of origin.

To anticipate a little, I may say I believe it is shown by
their future history, that these cells are truly entodermal
and that a “vitellophagous” career is not their sole function.
I have no reason to dispute that they play an important
part in most arthropods in the metabolism of the yolk, and
hence they are so far vitellophagous. Such was shown to
be the case in Astacus by Reichenbach a decade ago. In
my paper on the development of Limulus (’85, p. 543) I
ascribed a similar function to cerresponding cells in that
form and said that the lumen of the mid gut, and I might
have added, of its diverticula, arose from the actual eating
of the yolk by these cells. Kowalevsky and Schulgin
(86) attribute a similar function to cells occupying the
same position in the embryo scorpion, and Nusbaum, I
think, has adopted their views too completely in his de-
scriptions of Oniscus (786) and Mysis (787). These au-
thors, however, claim that vitellophagy is their sole function,

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 1*

10 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

but it seems probable that they are also entodermic, and
eventually give rise to the epithelium of the mesenteron. If
the above explanation of Nusbaum’s account of the develop-
ment of Mysis be correct, his entoderm is nothing of the
sort and his vitellophags are apparently the only cells
which can supply the lining of the mid gut. Until he pub-
lishes his complete account one is left in doubt as to the
evidence he has that these cells degenerate and disappear.

STOMODEUM AND ProcropruM.— Both stomodeum and
proctodeum are well marked structures in stage B (fig.
11). At this time the proctodeum is a well developed ec-
todermal invagination (fig. 36) arising behind the abdom-
inal flexure and formed of cells more or less columnar in
appearance. Its inner extremity terminates blindly, abut-
ting directly against the yolk, having apparently pushed
aside the mesoderm which formerly (fig. 29) formed an
unbroken sheet in this region. In the adjacent portion of
the yolk are several entoderm cells placed closer te each
other than in other parts of the deutoplasm. Behind the
proctodeum are a few mesodermal cells, while in front
(morphologically below) this layer is much more exten-
sive, reaching forward as a connected sheet (see below
under mesoderm) around the abdominal flexure to beyond
the stomodeum. In these points my studies are but little
more than a confirmation of those of Reichenbach.

The stomodeum at this stage is less deep and it is to
be noted that it has not yet broken through the mesoderm
nor does it doso until a much later stage. It is also to be
noted as is also the case in other forms, that it has not that
flexure so characteristic of it in its later stages. In the
section figured it has no well marked lumen but in others
(which do not show other features so well but which are
less contracted by the hardening reagents) it has a much
larger cavity in proportion than has the hind gut. At

CRANGON VULGARIS. 11

first its axis is directed obliquely backward but this is soon
changed, apparently by a more rapid growth of mesoderm
to a nearly similar angle toward the anterior end of the
embryo.

From this point until stage G' the changes are compara-
tively slight and are shown in figs. 37, 43 and 42 which rep-
resent longitudinal sections of stages #' and G respectively.
The former does not show the inner extremities of either
stomodeum er proctodeum, the section being slightly ob-
lique but in the latter (fig. 42) both are well shown. In
both, the stomodeum has become bent, the ventral half being
directed upwards and forwards while the inner portion is
directed as strongly in the opposite direction. In my
sections it appears to abut abruptly against the mesoderm
though I cannot state positively that it does.

The proctodeum on the other hand exhibits more marked
changes. The anus in fig. 43 is near the tip of the abdo-
men, but it is to be noted that it has lest its dorsal posi-
tion and has appeared upon the ventral surface, a feature
which is more strongly marked in fig. 42. Its inner ex-
tremity formsa wide funnel, the open mouth of which em-
braces the yolk, which now is seen to be breaking up (vide
fig. 20 and, later, fig. 23), the yolk granules and balls
circulating with a peristaltic motion in the intestine. My
series of sections seem clearly to show that the whole of
this intestine is of ectodermal origin and that the entoderm
has nothing to do with its formation. In stage 7, fig. 54,
the same relations of the proctodeum to the yolk mass are
seen, and in the living embryo the movements of the yolk
particles are much stronger. °

In the same stage (/7), the stomodeal division of the
alimentary tract exhibited some notable changes. At its
external extremity, it has become widened out to form a
buccal cavity (fig. 238, 6c) which abruptly contracts to

12 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

give rise to the long and narrow cesophagus. The widen-
ing of the stomodeum to form the buccal cavity is seen
in transverse sections to be in a longitudinal and not in a
transverse plane. The cesophagus goes upwards and for-
wards and then bends abruptly backwards to widen out
and form the “stomach” (gm). In front of (below) this
bend the walls are composed of a single layer of cells, but
in the gastric region the epithelium becomes thickened in
places, as can be seen in figs. 62, 63, 64, 65 and 66. In
fig. 64, which cuts both limbs of the stomodeal invagina-
tion near the angle, the gastric portion is seen to have
its lumen in the shape of a St. Andrew’s cross, the result
of a thickening of the epithelium in four places, while at
the angles it is but a single cell in thickness. ‘This is ap-
parently a provision for the subsequent distention of this
region into the large cardiac sac of the adult, a distention
not yet possible, on account of the comparatively large
amount of yolk not yet metabolized.

Farther back (figs. 54 and 65), the lumen is much larger
and is vertically compressed, while its walls are thinner.
There are, however, to be recognized in this region, three
thickenings—one ventral and two lateral—which corre-
spond in position and doubtless give rise to the future folds
of the pyloric division of the stomach (cf. Mocquard,
83, p. 230). At this stage (excepting that the cuticle and
straining hairs are not yet developed) the pyloric portion
of the stomach corresponds closely in section with the
similar region in the adult amphipod Gammarus. At this
stage (cf. fig. 54) the stomodeum certainly opens directly
to the yolk, there being not even a mesodermic partition
existing between.

The foregoing account is in close accord with that of
Reichenbach (’86) in almost all details except in the
communication of the stomodeum with the yolk cavity

CRANGON VULGARIS. 13

which takes place in Crangon at an earlier date than in As-
tacus. The muscular system of the “stomach,” on the other
hand, is much later in development than in the form stud-
ied by Reichenbach, as the walls do not before hatching ac-
quire a marked muscular appearance.

ENtroperM.—From the time of gastrulation until short-
ly before stage HZ, the history of the invaginated entoderm
can be briefly told. At first the cells remain in proximity
to the blastopore or anus, but (fig. 29) they have no inti-
mate connection with the rest of the germ. ‘They are,
rather, isolated cells in the midst of a large mass of yolk,
each cell consisting of » comparatively large nucleus sur-
rounded by a thin pellicle of protoplasm which exhibits a
tendency to extend in pseudopodal prolongations at the
angles.

With development the entoderm cells wander farther
from the point of origin and remain scattered through the
yolk, for a long time uniting neither with their fellows nor
with the other germ layers. Their division is not rapid
until stage G is reached, when they begin to multiply more
rapidly and to give rise to an epithelium by jeining them-
selves together.

Owing to the solidity of the yolk and the absence of
well defined yolk balls in Crangon, it is difficult to ascer-
tain the relationships of the entoderm cells to the yolk in
their pre-epithelial stages. Several facts, however, lead
me to the view that they are not to be regarded as the
centres of yolk balls, but rather as forming a potential if
not an actual reticulum, in the meshes of which the yolk
balls occur. This view is in full accord with that of May-
er (77, p. 237) of the relations of the entederm cells in
Eupagurus and in Porcellio (Reinhard, ’87) ; but differs
from Palemon where Bobretzky (’73) found these cells
forming the centres of yolk balls.

14 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

Of stage G', my scries of sections is not good enough
to show conclusively the steps followed by the entoderm
cells at that stage, but in stage 7 there is no doubt of the
part they play. They have become distributed through
the yolk, have multiplied rapidly and have begun to ar-
range themselves into an epithelium, the lobes of which
are not yet continuous with each other. It is difficult (or
even impossible) to obtain a single section which will show
the relation of these isolated patches of epithelium to each
other, but from a series of sections it is clearly seen that
at this stage (/7), there are three pairs of well-marked
lobes, and that these are from the first distinct from each
other.! Of these the first, with its mesodermal envelope,
abuts directly against the brain and are shown in sections
(fig. 59) passing through and just behind the compound
eyes. The second pair (fig. 64) are at about the level of
the cardiac portion ef the stomach, while the third pair,
which are the best developed, are just in front of the broad
funnel-shaped internal opening of the proctodeum. One
of this pair is shown —a little out of its proper position
with regard to the median line—in fig. 54, while in fig.
68 the plane of the section cuts across its posterior extrem-
ity, and fig. 67 shows that it has a considerable extension
towards the sides of the body. All of these lobes are
characterized by having the cells well developed and par-
taking more or less plainly of the nature of a columnar
epithelium, while in the sections which pass between these
lobes (e. g., figs. 638, 65) the entodermal cells are scat-
tered, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to trace any
protoplasmic connections existing between them.

In fig. 70 is a more careful drawing, on a larger scale,

1 Nusbaum (’86) claims that in Oniscus the second pair of liver
lobes arise from the splitting of the first pair, and Reinhard (’87),
studying Porcellio, confirms him.

CRANGON VULGARIS. 15

of asection across the tubular portion of the left posterior
liver lobe which shows better the histological structure of
the epithelium. The cells are distinctly columnar, and,
stained with alum cochineal, the nuclear reticulum shows
well. The nucleus occupies about half the cell and the
protoplasm outside is slightly granular and stains but
slightly though exceeding the nucleus in that respect. The
lumen of the follicle is filled with yolk, but the distinction
between yolk and cells is not very clearly marked. The
inner ends of the cells are irregular and somewhat pseudo-
podal in character and the protoplasm in the same region
is more granular than that at the opposite end of the cells.
This granulation is apparently due to the yolk which is
being taken into the cell at this point and is being metabo-
lized in an amceboid manner, much as described by Reich-
enbach (776) in his first paper and by several later authors
upon Crustacean development.

From the foregoing it appears clear that the entoderm
cells give rise directly to the so-called liver and that this
organ does not arise by diverticula from the main portion
of the digestive tract. It would also appear, that in the
early stages at least this organ does not really deserve the
name of liver, but should rather receive the name given it
by Frenzel (?84) of midgut gland; but as yet it does not
fulfil his characterization of it in the adult (p. 99) : “Dass
die Mitteldarmdriise [der Crustaceen] die Function einer
Verdauungsdriise besitzt, welche in ihrer Wirkung mit dem
Pancreas der Wirbelthiere eine grosse Anlichkeit zeigt.”

A difference is to be noted in the development of the
liver in Crangon from the process described by Reichen-
bach (786) in Astacus. In Crangon all the liver lobes at
first lie above the digestive canal; in Astacus they extend
beneath the ingrowing stomodeum and stomach.

In Palinurus (Dohrn, ’70, 126-127), the liver arises by

16 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

the formation of separate epithelial caps which later grow
together as in Crangon and produce the lobed condition of
the adult. In Cuma (Dohrn, /.c., p. 6) : The liver “besteht
aus einer missig gewolbten kuppelformigen Erhéhung,
deren Basis ringformig eine Oeffnung umschliesst, durch
welche die communication des Lebersackes mit dem Dotter,
spiter mit dem Darme stattfindet.” All of which agrees
well with what is given above.

I regret that the material at hand does not decide more
definitely the question of how much of the alimentary ca-
nal is of entodermal origin, but I think the inspection of
the figures referred to in connection with this section of
the present article will show that scarcely more than the
“liver” and its ducts can be derived from the entodermal
cells. Views of living specimens at a later stage than that
represented in fig. 23 show that the hind-gut extends itself
still farther forward, its inner termination retaining its fun-
nel-like expansion. Up to the stage represented in fig.
54 the approximation of proctodeum and stomodeum has
been effected not-by additions from the entodermal cells
but by cell division in these regions of true ectodermal
origin. Asin later stages, after hatching, the whole middle
region of the alimentary tract retains a uniform histologi-
cal structure it seems but fair to infer that the whole of its
extent has acommon origin. In other words, I believe that
the whole of the straight canal is produced by the stomo-
deum and proctodeum and that the entoderm is limited to
the liver or mid-gut gland of Frenzel, and the immediate
vicinity of its ducts.

It will readily be recalled that this view is not new. A
close parallel will be found in Oniscus as described by
Bobretzky (74). There the straight part of the tract is
described as being formed exclusively of stomodeum and
proctodeum while those cells which, in the former part of

CRANGON VULGARIS. 1?

this paper (’865) pp. 134-136, I have shown to be true
entoderm are utilized almost wholly in the formation of the
voluminous liver. Between Oniscus and Crangon, as is
to be expected, there are minor differences. In Crangon,
as we have seen, there are six (three pairs of) liver lobes
outlined at first. In Oniscus, on the other hand, the structure
is more simple. In this connection it may be noted that
Balfour, deriving his facts from Bobretzky, says (’80, p.
439) that in Oniscus the alimentary tract “is mainly if not
wholly formed from the proctodeum and stomodeum, ”
while on the next page he thinks that the entoderm cells,
besides furnishing the hepatic epithelium, “probably also
supply the growth material for the later growth of the ap-
parent proctodeum” and on this account this portion of the
digestive canal “does, in reality correspond to the procto-
deum and mesenteron together.”

Looking at Oniscus alone, as described and figured by
Bobretzky, it seems to me that the whole alimentary tract,
from the openings of the hepatic ducts to the anus is strictly

_ proctodeal in origin, while the light thrown upon the sub-

ject by Crangon seems to confirm this view. The yolk or
entoderm cells in Crangon are larger, and differ in their
histological characters from those of the hind gut, and I
have never seen a trace of their joining themselves to that
part of the canal. On the other hand, they seem to remain
in a passive condition until a comparatively late stage when
they unite, not to piece out either ingrowing portion but
to form the hepatic epithelium.

In Astacus the resemblances would naturally be closer
and so I regard them as shown in Reichenbach’s (’86) fig-
ures, especially in his Pl. xtv, fig. 217. His letter “D”
(“Ubergangstelle des Mitteldarms in den Hinterdarm”)
seems to have an arbitrary position while his “17D,” (‘dor-

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI. 2

18 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

saler Mitteldarmblindsack”) is comparable to my middle
liver lobe.

It would appear that Reichenbach felt compelled to rec-
ognize entoderm in the canal proper, for a digestive tract
without entoderm seems an anomaly. Fore- mid- and hind
euts are universally quoted, but their limits are far from
recognizable in either young or adult. Thus in Palemon
according to Bobretzky (?75 ) as abstracted by Hoyer, p.
318, “Die Kern-haltige peripherische Schicht der den Darm-
driisenkeim bildenden Pyramiden hebt sich als gesonderte
Zellenschicht von dem centralen Doltermasse ab, die durch
Kinschnurung in zwei vordere und zwei hintere Ballen
zerfallt, und bis zum Ausschlipfen der Larve vollig ver-
braucht wird. Der eigentliche Mitteldarm schniirt sich
durch einfache Faltenbildung von den oberen Wand des
Darmkeimes ab, wahrend der Rest des letzeren allmiilich

in Leberkanalchen sich zerkliiftet.” This, as will be seen,

agrees with my account of what occurs in Crangon, due
allowance being made for the different character of invag-
ination, except in the cutting off of the midgut proper.
But we are left in doubt as to the extent of this ‘ eigentliche
Mitteldarm.’ In this fact that the entodermal cells give rise
to the liver is possibly to be sought the source of Nusbaum’s
view (’87) already adverted to, that the vitellophags of
Mysis degenerate. He was looking for the entodermal
portion of the alimentary tract in the straight portion of
the canal, and being unable to trace them into any portion
of this and, failing to recognize that they gave rise to the
liver, he was at a loss to explain their fate in any other
way.

In connection with the method of formation of the ali-
mentary tract proper which I have described in the fore-
going pages, it is interesting to note the condition which

CRANGON VULGARIS. 19

occurs in the Cephalopoda according to the observations of
S. Watase (’88). Studying both Loligo pealit and an un-
known West Indian species of cephalopod this author con-
cludes (p. 178) “As to the origin of the digestive tract
with its appendages, I found it to be entirely formed by
the ectodermic invaginations, that is by the prolongations
of the proctodeum and the stomodeum.” Of course this
is but analogy and the cephalopod differs from Crangon in
having, according to Watase, none of its diverticula derived
from the morphological endoderm.

To account for the strange condition which he describes
Watase has recurrence to the modifying influence of the im-
mense food yolk. “In the Cephalopod the endoderm be-
comes the yolk digesting membrane, and before it can
dispense with this function, the prolongations of the fore
and hind guts complete the digestive tube and exclude the
endoderm, which itself becomes absorbed later.” Though:
there is a tendency to a belief that food yolk is called upon
to explain more than it ought to explain, I feel confident
that in both the cases of Crangon and the Cephalopods it
affords a valid reason for the conditions described.

The change in the position of the anus is interesting.
At first it is distinctly dorsal, a condition not uncommon
in the adults of many annelids, while by the outgrowth of
the upper margin of the opening it soon becomes terminal
and at last, long before hatching, it assumes its crusta-
cean position on the ventral surface.

‘DORSAL ORGAN.”

In figures 37 and 39 are shown two sections of the prob-
lematical structure which I have already referred to as the
“dorsal organ”. I have nothing to add to the account
which I formerly gave of it in this Bulletin (Vol. xvut,
p- 149, pl. u, f. 19). Itis solely ectodermal, and so far as

20 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

my observations go, only is seen in stage C’. In the later
stages there is nothing to. be seen in this region which
could be regarded as a derivative from it, unless it be the
hinder margin of the carapax, shown in figs. 42 and 54.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

At about the earliest stage at which any rudiments of
organs appear we can distinguish roughly the outline of
the nervous system. In figure 8 (this Bulletin, Vol.
Xvi) which represents a surface view of the gastrula stage,
there is shown an aggregation of ectodermal cells in front
of (below in the figure) the blastopore. Comparison of
this with figure 10 of the same plate, and with fig. 1 of
my paper on the development of the eye (’87) show that
in this aggregation we must recognize, not only the rudi-
ments of the thoracic-abdominal area but of the nervous
system as well. In fig. 10 (reproduced at a slightly later
stage in fig. 28) we can clearly see the two oval optic lobes
and leading from them backwards two cords of cells, the
rudiments of the future cords, reinforced, as shown by
sections, by a deeper layer of histologically different cells
which I interpret as mesodermal bands (see figs. 29-31).
These ectodermal nervous rudiments are composed of cells
more columnar than those occurring between and the ner-
vous system may be described as a pair of longitudinal
thickenings which are as yet unconnected in front, and
are but a single cell in thickness.

In stages Band C, much the same conditions are retained
except that the nervous system is several cells thick, but
a study of figure 11 makes it evident that we must consider
all of the ganglia of the nervous cord, except those con-
nected with the eyes, as primitively belonging to the post-
oral series. I may say here that I am inclined to believe
that I fell into error in my account of the development of

CRANGON VULGARIS. 21

the Compound Eye of Crangon (’?86a)and that the invagina-
tion or inpushing which I there described as giving rise to
the ommatidial layer of the eye, in reality gives rise to the
ganglion of the eye which in the adult is contained within
the ophthalmic stalk. It forms the anterior outer portion
of the tract lettered “ol” in figures 11, 12, 28, 82, etc. Be-
hind, and nearer the median line a second ganglion is
formed(g', in figures 33 and 34) which is clearly preoral and
is as clearly not connected with the first antenna, which
appendage is still distinctly behind the mouth. This, I re-
gard as the primitive prestomial ganglion, equivalent to the
supra-cesophageal ganglion of the annelids.’ Behind the
mouth(fig. 35 na)is shown a somewhat paired ectodermal
thickening which is clearly the ganglion of the antennula.
Sections passing through the second appendage show a con-
dition of affairs essentially the same.

None of my transverse sections of stages D, # and /’,
proved satisfactory, and between stages C’ and G, many
changes occur which can be but imperfectly studied in my,
drawings of the external appearance (figs. 14--18) and in
the longitudinal sections represented in figs. 38 and 41.
Instage D, fig. 14 shows an “ optic lobe” (ol) which, from
the preceding paragraph, is seen to be made up of optic
elements and an optic ganglion proper—a primitive supra-
cesophageal ganglion(og)and two ganglia(sg and one behind
it, unlettered), belonging to the two pairs of antenne. In
a longitudinal section of the same stage (fig. 38) it is seen
that the prestomial region of the nervous system (og) has
considerable longitudinal development while behind the

1 Owing to the fact that my drawings were made at different times,
and that my views on the development of the nervous system have
undergone serious alteration during the progress of my studies, there
will be found some confusion in the reference letters in the plates on
those parts that refer to the brain. In the text I have endeavored to
straighten this.

92 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

mouth an ectodermal nervous thickening extends the length
of the thorax and abdomen. A transverse section behind
the mouth (fig. 40) shows the ventral cord an unbroken band
extending from side to side.

In F (fig. 43), the cerebral region is much larger, and
near the median line three ganglia are to be seen, the boun-
daries between them not having as yet been obliterated.
These three ganglia unite to form the “ brain” of the adult,
and represent respectively, og,the primitive cerebral or pre-
stomial ganglion of the prenauplius condition ; g' the anten-
nular and g"” the antennal ganglia of the primitive ventral
chain. I have not traced out their derivatives in the com-
plex brain of the adult nor have I at any time seen traces of
thedivision of the first antennal ganglion which Reichenbach
describes(’86, p.67)as giving rise to the “Vorderehirnan-
schwellung” and “Seitenhirnanschwellung” of Dietl and
Krieger.

In stage G is noticed for the first time a differentiation
of the nervous system into ganglion cells and fibrous sub-
stance. I have not traced the processes sufficiently to add
anything new to what is known of the processes of his-
togenetic alteration, but would cail attention to the cells
and nuclei labelled “nc” in figs. 47, 48, 57, 58 and 59
which are undergoing metamorphosis. These nuclei ap-
pear much clearer and stain less deeply than their fellows
and the protoplasm of the cells as well as that of the nu-
clei is becoming more granular and exhibiting a tendency
to be arranged in bands, while in some cases the nuclear
wall is breaking down, steps in the process of conversion
into the neural “ Punct-substanz” of Leydig. Fig. 46
passes through the cerebral and antennular (g') ganglia
and the connective uniting them. In fig. 48 is shown the
commissure (cm?) connecting the antennular ganglia of the
right and left halves of the body, while cm’ in fig. 48
shows the commissure between the antennal ganglia.

CRANGON VULGARIS. 93

In fig. 42 the ganglia of the ventral thoracic chain are al-
ready seen to be differentiated by the appearance of fibrous
portions (dotted in the figure), while no such structure is
visible in the abdomen. Here, however, the ganglia are
separated by the rudimentary flexor muscles (mu) extend-
ing downward to the ventral surface. From sections 46
to 49, we see that in stage G there are a cerebral ganglion
proper and two antennal ganglia in front of the mouth; a
count of those shown in fig. 42 shows sixteen in the ven-
tral chain, of which seven are abdominal, a total of nine-
teen, leaving two to be added to the thoracic region.

In stage H (figs. 54-71) there is a considerable advance,
represented diagrammatically in the last figure (71). In
54 we see that the brain is of considerable size, and that
two of its masses of transverse commissural fibres are
large. Behind the mouth and csophagus the ventral chain
is well shown nearly to the anal opening. Itis, however,
noticeable that nowhere has it yet separated from the par-
ent ectoderm.

In the cerebral region several features may be mentioned.
In fig. 55 transverse commissures are seen connecting to-
gether the two members of the first pair of ganglia. Three
sections back (fig. 56) we see two bands of fibres the
outer of which (fo), as the next figure shows, is connected
with the eye, while the other (fc) can be traced in the sec-
tions not figured, to the em’ of fig. 55. In figs. 57 and
58, the latter a more magnified representation of the for-
mer, a process is clearly seen which I interpret as a break-
ing down of certain of the ganglion cells and their nuclei
and a modification of the protoplasm into nerve fibres. In
the centre of fig. 57 (cm?) is seen the section of a second
commissure uniting the two halves of the “brain,” while
in fig. 59 (two sections farther back), these are again sep-
arated (cv) and serve to connect the two ganglia of the
same side and the anterior bend of the cesophagus and its

24 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

mesoderm are coming in between the two halves of the
brain, which in the next section (fig. 60) are completely
separated by the alimentary canal. In this last section we
see two bands of fibres, the outer (n’) being the fibrous
portion of the nerve going to the antennula.

A review of this foregoing shows us that the “ brain” at
this stage is composed of three pairs of ganglia—optic,
primitive-cerebral and antennular, the antennal having not
yet moved forward beyond the cesophageal collar; and al-
though the two pairs of antenne have acquired a distinct-
ively prestomial position, these nervous centres have
delayed in the movement. This condition at once recalls
the structure in the adult Apus, where Zaddach (’41, pl.
i, fig. v) years ago showed that both antennal nerves
rise from the cesophageal commissures though Pelseneer
(7°85) showed that the corresponding ganglia had moved
forward to join the primitive brain, although the nerves
had tarried behind.

Of the nervous structures behind the brain at this stage
but little is to be said beyond what the figures themselves
show. I would eall attention, however, to the fact that at
this stage the fibrous portions are central and the ganglion
cells surround them in the cephalothoracic region, and that
this condition persists (fig. 72) in the hatched zoea. In
the abdomen (stage //), the fibres are superficial as in the
adult (fig. 69).

In fig. 66, which passes through the sixth pair of appen-
dages, may be noticed a couple of patches of pigment, the
meaning of which I do not understand. At a little later
stage, similar patches appear in pairs in all of the post-oral
segments in such a way as to suggest that they may be
remnants of segmental sense-organs of the ancestral an-
nelid. In surface views, as well as in sections, they ap-
pear quite similar to the “ nauplius eye,” as itappears (figs.
17, 18, 20, 54, 56 and 73 oc). My observations on these

CRANGON VULGARIS. 25

pigment patches, as well as on the ocellus, are very frag-
mentary, and concerning them and the further development
of the nervous system, I have at present nothing further
to offer.

A comparison of the development of the nervous system
of Crangon with that of Astacus, as described by Reichen-
bach, is not an easy task, since my sections show but few
of the structures he figures and describes. In that form
(cf. Reichenbach, ’86, pp. 64-65), the primitively postoral
ganglia of the brain move forward at a much earlier date
than they do in Crangon, and the fibrous portions of the
chain are correspondingly precocious in their appearance.
Nothing like the middle cord and thrice divided lateral cords
of Reichenbach appear in Crangon, at least until after hatch-
ing, nor have I seen any division of the first antennal gan-
glion to form the “ Seitenanschwellung.”

MESODERM.

In the previous part of this paper, the mesoderm was
described as arising from the anterior and lateral margins
of the blastopore. It retains its primitive condition and
exhibits no differentiation until about the stage A. Then
as shown insections 29, 30 and 31, it has increased consid-
erably in extent and has crowded itself between the ecto-
and entoderm, reaching to a point a little behind the blasto-
pore or anus. In front, it has spread out beyond the region
of the abdominal flexure. A series of transverse sections at
this stage show that the layer is essentially circular in out-
line, except for two lobes which reach forward a short dis-
tance on each neural band. Fig. 31 represents a section
passing through the neural band of either side, the region
of which may be recognized by the columnar character of
the epithelial cells, while beneath each band may be seen

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 2%

26 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

the mesoderm.' Neither at this nor at any other stage have
I seen any “secondary mesoderm ” like that described by
Reichenbach (’76 and ’86, and Ishikawa ’85).

With growth the mesoderm spreads in all directions ex-
cept that the bands mentioned above do not meet in the
middle line of the thoracic region until a comparatively late
stage (see fig. 40), though they do farther forward (fig.
35). Atstage C these bands have reached the level of the
stomodeum and partially surround its inner extremity,
thus giving origin to the muscles of the gastric mill and
cesophagus, to be developed later (fig. 35m). Still other
portions extend further forward reaching (figs. 87 and 41)
to a point in front of the eye. Behind the thoracico-abdom-
inal fold the mesoderm is more developed, while at the
anterior margin of the fold and near the tip of the abdomen
there appear certain large cells (figs. 386, 37, 41, 51 gc)
belonging to both meso- and ectoderm (and which, in fact,
appeared still earlier, fig. 29). These cells must be regard-
ed as budding cells and at once suggest comparisons with
the large mesoderm cells described by so many authors
among the annelids and notably by Dr. Whitman (°78 and
°87). Itis in just these regions that growth occurs. The
young shrimp when it hatches from the egg has its abdo-
men with the normal number (7) of segments. The cepha-
lothorax, too, is complete in its appendages in front (see
fig. 27) ; but the series stops with the second maxilliped,
leaving six pairs to be produced in subsequent growth.
The anterior region of these growth cells nearly, and I be-
lieve (though I cannot say with certainty) exactly corre-
spond with this region which is afterward to produce the
missing portions of the thorax. So, too, in the tip of the ab-
domen we find another region for the intercalation of new

1 By an error, the planes of the sections in figure 29 are wrongly
numbered. The figures 30 and 31 should be transposed, as will be
seen by a comparison of the corresponding figures.

¢

CRANGON VULGARIS. aT

segments. In stage C’ the abdomen is short and the anus
is still dorsal in position. A little later, stage #,itis termi-
naland plainly (fig. 51) these budding cells are adding to
the length and taking part in the transposition of the anus
from the dorsal to the ventral surface of the body. In this
condition it is to be noted that these germ cells belong to
both ecto-and mesoderm and thus present close resem-
blances to the “neuroblasts” and “mesoblasts” of Dr. Whit-
man. The number of these cells vary. In transverse section
I have seen as many as eight in either layer at the tip of the
abdomen, but not so many in the thoracic zone of growth.

It is not until stage /’ that there begins to be much dif-
ferentiation of the mesoderm, but it is to be noted that at
this, as well as later stages, the mesoderm of the append-
ages is solid and I have not been able at any time to rec-
ognize a well defined celom. Occasionally cavities, formed
by splitting, in the middle layer but whether these are to
be recognized as schizocclia or as blood vascular spaces
cannot be decided by any evidence at hand except on the
theoretical grounds advanced by Lankester (788 and elab-
orated for Peripatus by Sedgwick (’88).

Tae Heart.— The heart begins its beating in stage 7’;
it is then but a linear tube which becomes obliterated in the
sections, and I have no information as to whether it arises
by a splitting of the mesoderm or as a remnant of a theo-
retical segmentation cavity as suggested by Biitschli and
Schimkewitsch. My sections unfortunately show almost
nothing of its development except that it appears as a dif-
ferentiation of a slender dorsal vessel arising in the dorsal
mesoderm and apparently (fig. 54) in that portion usually
recognized as splanchnoplure. In stage # the heart has be-
come well developed and, as observations on the living em-
bryo show (fig. 21), consists of but a single layer of cells
with a single ostium on either side. In the early stages
the ophthalmic artery is the most conspicuous, appearing as

28 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

a well marked tube in all of the anterior transverse sections
of stage Hf (figs. 57, 59, 60, 62-65, d). The superior ab-
dominal artery is much less marked, while neither in the
living embryo nor in my sections have I seen traces of other
arteries than these. In view of the fact that in the adult
the ophthalmic artery is the smallest of the five arising di-
rectly from the heart, its prominence at this stage seems
strange until we consider that the hepato-gastric and ster-
nal arteries would have to supply regions which at this time
are charged with food yolk, while the enormous eyes are
far removed from the deutoplasm and must have all nour-
ishment brought them from a distance.

CrpPHALIC MresopermM.—The mesoderm, which in stage
C had extended itself into the region in front of the mouth,
remains comparatively unmodified until about stage /. In
the median line (figs. 42 and 43 m) it appears as a moderate
patch extending in the former down between the ganglia.
A better view of its extension can be gained in fig. 48,
where, in the median line, it is a thick mass sending out a
narrow sheet on either side, from which a strand stretches
upwards, while another goes outwards and downwards (as
shown by fig. 49, taken from the same embryo five sec-
tions farther back) into the region of the first and second
antenne. In stage H the central patch is largely utilized
in forming the muscular wall of the cesophagus, while the
lateral portions (figs. 55-61) retain about their former po-
sition, but send (figs. 56, 57 and 58) a band between
the ommatidial elements and the optic ganglion. It is to
this layer that I referred in my preliminary account of
the compound eye of Crangon(’86a)as intruding between
the ommatidial and ganglionic layers and giving rise to the
intrusive mesodermal pigment surrounding the nerve fi-
bres in that region. I did not and do not regard this as
in any way giving rise to the pigment surrounding the
pedicels, which clearly arises from the ectoderm.

CRANGON VULGARIS. 29

It is the manner in which this intrusion of the meso-
derm takes place which forms one of the important objec-
tions to my published ideas regarding the development of
the compound eye. According to my former account I
regarded this layer as insinuating itself into the cavity of
invagination, from the walls of which I then believed arose,
on the one hand, all of the ommatidial elements beneath the
layer of Sempev’s nuclei, and on the other, the optic gan-
glion. But the invagination in question actually takes place
on the other or dorsal side, and to have the mesoderm creep
into such a cavity involves its breaking through a solid
ectodermal wall. I now believe that the invagination re-
ferred to plays a part in the formation of the optic gan-
glion, while the eye itself arises from a proliferation of the
ectodermal cells, and that this mesoderm extends itself be-
tween the two thickenings thus produced. With this view
other difficulties surrounding my account of the develop-
ment of the eye disappear.

GREEN GLanp.—The green gland or antennal gland
must be enumerated among the mesodermal structures. It
will be recalled that a patch of mesoderm was described
as stretching into the base of the antenne and is shown
(figs. 49 and 50) as forming a solid mass without a lumen.
In stage H/ (figs. 60 and 61) a cavity appears in this tis-
sue and the cells lining it take a well-marked epithelial
character, their boundaries being distinct, while those of
the remaining mesoderm retain their primitive character,
As yet there is no connection with the external world and
the convolutions of the gland are but few, the most con-
torted portion being that figured in fig. 61 gg. So far as my
sections show, neither at this nor at any other stage does
the green gland have any connection with any other cav-
ity inside the body, a fact which was once regarded as af-
fording serious difficulties in the way of regarding it as a
segmental organ and which may have led Reichenbach into

30 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

his apparent mistake regarding it. The external opening
to the gland is not formed until after hatching. Fig. 74,
which passes through the end of the duct, was drawn from
a section which escaped the rest of the tube.

In both of his papers (776 and ’86 ) Reichenbach claims that
in Astacus the green gland is of ectodermal origin. Be-
tween these two dates, Grobben (’79) clearly pointed out
Reichenbach’s mistake and showed that the gland belonged
to the mesodermal tissues. Still, in his later paper(’86),
Reichenbach holds to his former opinion. Ifhe were aware
of any other view or of Grobben’s criticism he does not
show it ; for he neither replies to it nor quotes it, but merely
repeats his earlier account. I confess it is not easy to rec-
oncile Reichenbach’s fig. 125 and 126 with my studies of
Crangon ; for if the diagrammatic cells and conventional tint-
ing are to be trusted, the green gland in Astacus must be
derived from the ectoderm,unless the duct form long before
the rest of the gland. — Ishikawa’s observations on the or-
igin of the green gland of Atyephyra(’85), do not afford a
solution of the difficulty ; for although he claims that the
gland is ectodermal, his published figures do not conclu-
sively settle the question. I have no doubts that the gland
in question is mesodermal in Crangon, and that it should
be placed in the category of segmental organs or nephridia.

Sedgwick’s recent researches on the embryology of Per-
ipatus throw much light on the morphology of the ce-
lom and of the nephridia in all of the arthropods, and seem
to substantiate Lankester’s view that the so-called body
cavity of these animals is not homologous with the ccelom
of the Annelida. According to this view the spaces in the
body of an arthropod (blood sinuses, etc.) are all in connec-
tion and communication with the circulatory system and
must be regarded as portions of a blood vascular room. In
Peripatus, on the other hand, the true ccelom has no con-
nection with the circulatory system or with the general body

CRANGON VULGARIS. 31

cavity. It becomes divided at an early date into a dorsal
genital cavity and into a ventral series of paired nephridial
cavities, and throughout life the nephridia have no connec-
tion with the general body cavity, but are covered with a
thin membrane, the dorsal ccelomic spaces never extending
beyond the expanded inner ends of the segmental organs.

If a similar view be adopted with regard to all arthro-
pods it will readily be seen that both antennal and shell
glands must fall into full accord with the nephridia of Per-
ipatus and were they to communicate with the so-called
body-cavity (blood-vascular space )their claims to the posi-
tion here assigned them would be weakened to a consider-
able extent.

’

In connection with these studies of the development of
Crangon several questions have suggested themselves, a
few of which may be briefly mentioned here, though a full
discussion of them would require volumes as well as a spe-
cial knowledge of the details of the morphology of seg-
mented animals which few possess.

As has already been suggested in this series (’860, p.
147), the Nauplius cannot be regarded as the adult condi-
tion of any crustacean and thus have an ancestral value.
It is rather to be regarded as an introduced feature in
the development of the ancestors which, though frequently
masked, is more or less clearly distinguishable in all of the
class. Its introduction into the series and its later tendency
towards obsolescence are, in my opinion, to be attributed
to paucity and abundance of the much-abused food yolk.

A careful consideration of the distribution of proto-
plasm and deutoplasm in the crustacean egg will, I think,
show that the latter is an element which has been intro-
duced at a comparatively recent date. In those eggs where
the developmental history shows us that food yolk has long
been present, we find it either uniformly distributed through-

32 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

out the egg, or aggregated at one pole of the ovum. In the
Crustacea and other Arthropods, as I have already shown
(7860, pp. 103,112 to 138) and contrary to the usual charac-
terization, the yolk ts superficial and the protoplasm central,
just as we might expect it to be in an egg, the mothers of
which had only recently acquired the capacity of provid-
ing the growing germ with an abundance of nourishment.
Then, too, the character of the segmentation, which as Ihave
also shown (/. c.) is neither superficial nor centrolecithal,
but is regular. and total, is like that of an alecithal egg,
and the food yolk has not long enough been present to
modify but slightly this regularity and totality.

Now it is admitted by all that the Crustacea have de-
scended from the Annelids and from some member of that
group where there were a considerable number of seg-
ments. The persistence of several modified segmental or-

gans in the Crustacea,’ indicating at least the inheritance

* The antennal glands, coxal glands, and so-called shell glands, are
clearly derivatives of the nephridia of Annelids, with which they agree
in position, function and to a certain extent in structure, if due allow-
ance be made for the almost total obliteration of the ccelom and the
absence of cilia in the Arthropods. To this series, which represent
the second and fifth segments of the body, I would here state my be-
lief must be added still others in both Crustacea and Arachnida. In
the decapods, for instance, the genital openings are paired and open
at the inner bases of the legs, but the position of that opening varies
in the two sexes; being in the female at the base of the eleventh and
in the male of the thirteenth pairs of feet. This diversity in point of
opening of the genital glands in the two sexes of the same species is,
it seems to me, inexplicable upon any other ground than that the ovi-
ducts and vasa deferentia are themselves modifications of pre-existing
metameric organs, and the only organs in the annelids which would
answer the requirements of the case are the nephridia. This view is
rendered more probable from the fact that in many annelids the ne-
phridia are at once organs for carrying off nitrogenous waste and gen-
erative products as well, while in others (e. g., Lumbricidee) certain
of these organs become modified for carrying off the male and others
the female reproductive elements. In this connection, too, it is to be
noticed, that while I have made no observations on the development

CRANGON VULGARIS. 33

of thirteen annelidan segments, is alone sufficient to prove
this. Then, too, we know that this ancestral many-seg-
mented form must have crossed the line between the an-
nelids and the arthropods, because nowhere among the
annelids do we find any form which can in any way be
compared to the Nauplius. That the archaic crustacean
possessed many ancestral features which do not appear in
the Nauplius can be seen from a study of the appendages
of Apus, which as Lankester (’81) has shown (rather than
that di- or trichotomous condition which is so often assigned
that position) must be regarded as the primitive and typi-
cal crustacean appendage. Now, a comparison of the tho-
racic appendages of Apus with the parapodia of some of
the more generalized worms belonging to the Polycheeta
(Errantia) shows clearly that it is from the latter that the
crustacean foot has been derived.

Now it is reasonable to suppose that no matter what the
effects be on the young and on the race, it is an economy
to the parent in an oviparous form to send the egg out with
as small an amount of food yolk as possible, and then the
young finds it to its great advantage to escape from the egg
at as early a date as possible, provided it be equipped with
the necessary organs for playing its part in the world and
depending upon the efficiency of these for obtaining foed
sufficient not only for its immediate wants, but for repro-

of genitalia in Crangon, Sedgwick (’88) shows that in Peripatus the
dorsal portion of the coelom becomes restricted to the generative area,
so that if the ovary and testis of the Crustacea be homologous with
those of Peripatus, the relations to celom remaining the same, the
resemblances between the genital and segmental ducts will be even
more striking. The modifications of the primitive nephridial tubes of
the vertebrates into generative outlets will also suggest themselves in
this connection and their pertinence to the present discussion will be
more obvious when we remember that in many respects the verte-
brates are more vermian than are the Arthropods.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 3

34 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

ducing the structure of the parent. In the Nauplius there
is little that is non-essential in an Arthropod, and we must
regard it asan embryo of the type just mentioned. It has
an alimentary tract, traversing an unsegmented body, a
median eye, and three pairs of appendages, the first sen-
sory, the other two pairs at once natatory and fitted for the
comminution ef food. The most salient features in subse-
quent growth are the elongation and segmentation of the
body and the addition of more appendages posteriorly. It
is noticeable that with increase in food yolk there is a
marked tendency towards obliteration of the nauplius stage
in the Crustacea ; in fact, it may really be questioned whether
the so-called nauplius stage in the decapods and tetrade-
capods exists only because of inheritance from such an an-
cestor or whether it be but a necessary sequence of meta-
merism, for in any segmented animal the anterior are the
first parts to appear and hence in all there must be a time
in development when but three segments exist. Of course
it should not be forgotten that a free-swimming nauplius
stage occurs in Lucifer and Penzus, and that Lucifer, at
least, has an egg in which food yolk is not abundant.

SUMMARY.

1. The arthropod egg is not to be regarded as cen-
trolecithal and having a superficial segmentation but as
having a central segmentation, the blastoderm being formed
by migration of the resulting cells to the surface.

2. The primitive groove in the Arthropods is a modified
blastopore, and the absence of invaginated entederm in
some forms is to be explained by Cope’s and Hyatt’s the-
ory of acceleration and retardation.

3. In Crangon the anus occupies the position of the
blastopore.

4, In Crangon and many other Crustacea the young ger-
minal area is actually larger than the much older embryo.

CRANGON VULGARIS. 35

5. Allofthe appendages belong to the primitively post-
oral series, and the appendages move forward more rap-
idly than the corresponding ganglia.

6. There are indications of segmental sense organs in
every seoment of the embryo.

7. The alimentary tract proper is nearly, if not en-
tirely, formed from the proctodeal and stomodeal invagi-
nations, the entoderm giving rise to nothing but the liver.

8. The green gland is mesodermal in origin and be-
longs to the category of segmental organs.

9. The genital ducts are modified nephridia.

10. The nauplius is an introduced feature and repre-
sents no adult ancestral condition inthe crustacean phylum.

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CRANGON VULGARIS. 37

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"aL,

7875

CRANGON VULGARIS. 39

762, Robin, Ch.—Mémoire sur la production des cellules du blastoderm
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40 THE DEVELOPMENT OF

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EXPLANATION OF PLATES I, II AND III.

The numbering of the figures is consecutive with that of the pre-
ceding part (Vol. xvi, pls. 1 and 11).

REFERENCE LETTERS.

a abdomen. ey eye.
af abdominal flexure. f- flexor muscles of abdo-
an anus. men.
ap appendage. Jc fibres of cerebral gang-
be _— body cavity. lion.
bg boundary between optic fo fibres of optic ganglion.
and cerebral ganglia. g (1-17) ganglia of the primi-
bl _—blastopore. tively postoral series.
Cc cerebral ganglion. ga germinal area.
cc crystalline cone. gc germinal cells.
ch chorion. gg green gland.
cl corneal lens. gm stomach.
cm commissure or commis- gt gastric teeth.
sural fibres. h entoderm.
co body cavity. ht heart.
ct cuticle. I-xX appendages.
cv connective or connective 7 intestine.
fibres. l labrum.
d dorsal vessel. li So Miwen.
dm dorsal mesoderm. m mesoderm (mouth in fig.
do dorsal organ. Ll);
é ectoderm. me mesentery.
ec edge of carapax. gm mesoderm of green
eo =. ex ternal opening of green gland.
gland. mn mandibular nerve.
ex extensor muscles of ab- mo mouth.

domen. mu muscle.

CRANGON VULGARIS. 41

antennular nerve. p proctodeum.
antennal nerve. pf pyloric fold.
first maxillary nerve. pg pigment.
na neura: blastema. py pyloric portion of stom-
me nerve cells undergoing ach.
metamorphosis into r rostrum.
nerve fibres. rp yretinophora.
nce} nerve cells of optic gang- Sg supra-cesophageal gang-
lion. lion.
oc ocellus. sn Semper’s nuclei.
oe cesophagus. so somatoplure.
of fibres of second antennal sp splanchnoplure.
nerves. st stomodeum.
og optic ganglion. t thorax (telson in fig. 20).
ot = optic invagination. ta thoracic abdominal area.
ol optic lobe. te telson.
om ommatidial layer of eye. vm ventral mesoderm.
os ostiole of heart. y yolk.
Fig. 28. Diagram of egg in ‘‘ Stage A,” to show the planes of the
sections. By an error, two of the planes are wrongly numbered; the

figures 30 and 31 should be transposed.

Fig. 29. Obliquely longitudinal section of stage A passing through
the anus and through the inner edge of the optic lobe.

Fig. 30. ‘Transverse section of the same stage behind the abdominal
flexure.

Fig. 31. Transverse section of the same stage cutting through both
nerve bands.
Fig. 32. Diagram of the embryo in stage C to show the planes of

section of figures 33 to 37 and 41. (The curvature of the lines is due
to an attempt to show ‘‘ great circles” on a plane.)

Fig. 33. Tranverse section passing through the anterior portion of
the optic lobes of ‘‘stage C.”

Fig. 34. Same, a little farther back. This and the preceding fig-
ure show the separation of the optic and cerebral ganglions.

Fig. 35. Section of same stage, passing behind the mouth and cut-
ting the csophagus and first appendage.

Fig. 36. Sagittal section of the same stage. (This egg was consid-
erably contracted and the proportions are not quite as in the normal
condition. )

Fig. 37. Obliquely longitudinal section of a slightly older stage in
which the mesoderm has extended in front of the eye.

Fig. 38. Longitudinal section through stage D.

Fig. 39. ‘Dorsal organ” of stage C (Compare fig. 37).

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI. af

42 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRANGON VULGARIS.

Fig. 40. Section through the fourth pair of appendages, stage D.

Fig. 41. Obliquely longitudinal section of stage C (Compare fig.
32).

Fig. 42. Longitudinalsection of stage G (constructed from two sec-
tions).

Fig. 43. Longitudinal section of stage F.

Fig. 44. Transverse section through fourth pair of appendages of
stage G.

Fig. 45. Outline of embryo at stage G.

Figs. 46 to 49 are taken from one series, 46 being the 3rd, 47 the 7th,
48 the 8th, and 49 the 13th section, of stage G.

Fig. 50. A portion of a longitudinal section of stage G, to show the
mesoderm extending into the appendages.

Fig. 51. Tip of abdomen at about stage F showing the budding
cells in mesoderm and ectoderm.

Fig. 52. Section through thorax and tip of abdomen, stage C, show-
ing the germ cells.

Fig. 53. A group of ectodermal germ cells from a surface view of
stage C.

Fig. 54. Longitudinal section of stage H, constructed from three
sections. The liver (li) does not belong in the plane of this section
but was introduced to show its position with regard to anterior and
posterior ends.

Figs. 55 to 60 and 62 to 63 are taken from one series of an embryo
stage H.

Fig. 55 is the 5th, 56 the 8th, 57 the 10th, 58 an enlarged portion of
fig. 57; 59 the 12th; 60 the 13th, 62 the 15th and 63 the 17th section.

Fig. 61. An enlarged view of the green gland, stage H.

Figs. 64 to 69 are from another series of sections of an embryo at
stage H.

Fig. 64 is the 18th, 65 the 20th, fig. 66 the 22nd, 67 the 24th, 68 the
26th while 69 passes through the abdomen alone.

Fig. 70. An enlarged view of a liver sac at stage H showing the
amoeboid character of the entoderm cells.

Fig. 71. A diagrammatic representation of the relations of nerves
and ganglia in the brain at stage H.

Figs. 72 and 73. Two longitudinal sections through the head and
brain of a free swimming zoea of Crangon.

Fig. 74. Section through the base of the second antenna of a zoea
showing (eo) the external opening to the green gland. The lumen of
the gland did not appear in the section from which the drawing was
made.

AULLETIN ESSEX INST, VOL" AAD PGT

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NEW PHOSPHORESCENT ORGANS IN
PORICHTHYS.

BY FREDERICK C. TEST.

(WITH PLATE IV.)

ArT the suggestion of Dr. D. S. Jordan, the investiga-
tions detailed in the following pages were made, under
the direction of Dr. J. S. Kingsley, during the year 1888.

Porichthys margaritatus is found on the Pacific coast,
where it is generally, if not solely, a shore fish. It has
received its common name of “midshipman” from the fact
that it is covered with rows of what are described as “shin-
ing pores” in Jordan and Gilbert’s “Synopsis of North
American Fishes.” These “shining pores” were supposed
to bear some resemblance to the buttons on a midship-
man’s jacket.

My work was begun, to ascertain the true structure of
these “shining pores,” and to see if they really were phos-
phorescent organs, as Dr. Jordan thought they might be.
The problem was all the more interesting in that while
almost all fishes known to bear phosphorescent organs be-
long to the abyssal depths of the ocean, this, as I have
said, is a shallow-water fish.

The technique pursued was that usually followed in his-
tological researches, serial sections being used, stained in
toto with alum cochineal. The material on which I worked
was unfortunately not in good condition for histological in-
vestigations, and only after the plate was engraved, was I

(43)

44 THE PHOSPHORESCENT ORGANS

able to obtain sections clearly showing the cellular struct-
ure of what I have called the lens. But from the fact
that my studies have resulted in ascertaining that the or-
gans are probably phosphorescent in their nature, but dif-
fering in many respects from any previously described,
I have thought it best to publish them, without waiting
for ocular proof of their phosphorescence, or for better
specimens. _

In Porichthys the organs are arranged in regular lines
which follow to a large extent the distribution of the “ lat-
eral line organs,” and for purposes of description I have
given the various rows names by which they will be re-
ferred to in the following account.

The two anal(a) rows run one along either side of the
anal fin, from just behind the vent to the base of the cau-
dal fin. Each row is composed of a double series of
organs, these being in pairs, but the outer ones are near-
ly twice the size of the inner.

The pleural (pl) row starts beneath the pectoral fin,
runs upward and backward in an arcuate line, and then
runs horizontally along the side of the body to a point
about opposite the twentieth ray of the anal fin. The or-
gans in this row are single.

The lateral row (2) follows the normal lateral line from
a point just behind the level of the base of the pectoral to
the caudal. It consists of a triple series of organs, the
middle of which are the ordinary mucous pores of the lat-
eral line, the lower and upper, however, being phosphores-
cent organs. ‘The lower series of organs are larger than
the upper, which are like those in the row described below
as occipital.

The dorsal row(d)follows the base of the dorsal fin, and
though it is but a single series, it consists of alternating
phosphorescent organs and mucous pores.

IN PORICHTHYS. 45

The occipital rows(o) lie on either side of the two dor-
sal spines. Each row consists of several pairs of organs,
each pair with a mucous pore between the two minute or-
gans that compose it.

The frontal rows (/) are double, the inner row of either
side being about half as long as the outer. In both inner
and outer there is that alternation of organs and pores not-
ed above. The curved postorbital row (po) runs backward
and downward from behind the eye, in front joining the
orbitoral(oo), running downward from the eye to the angle
of the mouth. The angular (aa) runs backward from the
angle of the mouth. These rows are all short and single.

Between the postorbital and the lateral is the curved
scapular row (s) which in some specimens bends upward
toward the dorsal and is then prolonged along the back
to form a second dorsal row consisting of phosphorescent
organs and mucous pores arranged as in the occipital row.

The opercular rows (op), two in number, occur on the
operculum, in general parallel to its free margin. The
posterior half of the lower row is wholly of mucous pores.
The pectoral(p)curves around the front side of the base
of the pectoral fin joining the gastric(ga) below, the latter
running back to the level of the anal fin. The mandibu-
lar (md) follows the curve of the lower jaw. Inside this,
and extending back on either side to near the hinder oper-
cular margin is the folded sub-opercular row (so), and in-
side the V thus formed are the two symmetrical gulars (7),
which run back to the junction of the gastric and pectoral
rows. The ventral rows(v)form a parenthesis on the stom-
ach, stopping behind on either side of the anus. A short
sub-branchial row(sb) occurs just outside the base of each
ventral fin.

The organs, viewed from the surface, appear as nearly
circular shining spots. Sections show that they are con-

——

46 THE PHOSPHORESCENT ORGANS

tained in the scaleless skin, and are covered by the trans-
parent epidermis. This epidermis is of the regular piscine
type common in scaleless forms, with the ordinary mucous
cells. The epidermis is not, as might be expected, thinner
over the organs. In my first sections, from the poor ma-
terial, the epidermis had been torn away, andso is not shown
in the figures in the plate.

Between the epidermis and the muscular tissues below,
is a rather thick layer of fibrous connective tissue. The

a (5/
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Section of organ in pleural row, X 160; c = connective tissue capsule; e = epi-
dermis; / = fibrous connective tissue; 2 = lens; p = pigment; 7 = reflector.

organs are entirely embedded in this. An organ consists,
primarily, of a more or less spherical “lens,” resting on the
centre of a circular spicular layer or reflector. This spic-
ular layer is thicker and turned up at the edges, and at
one side in some of the organs so far as to form a sort of
pocket. It is composed of numberless, almost indistinguish-
able, spicule-shaped fibres. The “spicules” are not con-
fined to the reflector, but some of them are scattered along
in the connective tissue, between the organs. This spicu-

IN PORICHTHYS. AT

lar reflecting layer is clearly a special modification of the
fibrous connective tissue, but its fibres are shorter, straighter
and more opaque, and the layer as a whole is more dense
than the surrounding tissue.

In both the reflector and connective tissue are occasional
scattered nuclei.

That this is a true reflector is readily proved by actual
experiment. In sections on the stage of the microscope
the spicular layer is markedly fluorescent when viewed by
reflected light, retaining its properties after treatment with
histological reagents, a fact which is confirmative of the
supposed nature of these organs.

The lens is the most prominent part of the organ. It
consists of (see cut) a spherical or lenticular aggregation
of cells, the central of which are approximately cubical,
becoming more and more lenticular or spindle-shaped in
section, towards the outside. It is more or less complete-
ly enveloped by a connective tissue capsule. (‘This last
was alone preserved, in my first material, the lens having
macerated so that no stain would bring out the nuclei, and
no sections revealed cell walls in it.)

This connective-tissue capsule in some cases completely
envelops the organ, and then again merely forms a cup,
shallow or deep, according to the organ. It consists of
gelatinous connective tissue, the two ends of cup showing
some histological differentiation. A blood-vessel connects
with it at the side opposite to the spicular pocket.

In some of. the organs, there occurs a layer of pigment
below the reflector, while in others all the pigment there
is occurs in isolated patches or flakes, at the side of, or be-
low, the reflector. Generally speaking, the organs on the
dorsal surface have considerable pigment both beneath and
at the sides of the reflector, those on the sides of the body
have less, and of those on the ventral surface, some have

48 THE PHOSPHORESCENT ORGANS

but little, and some none. But the amount of pigment, and
indeed the development of the organs, varies in the differ-
ent specimens of the fish examined. In some specimens,
the organs, especially on the ventral surface, were plainly
not much changed from their original state of slime glands.
In the specimen in which the organs were best developed,
there were present not only all the organs figured in my
plate, but there were additional rows of slime glands (or
mucous pores) changing into phosphorescent organs. This _
was particularly noticeable, first, on the ventral surface ;
second, in a row of slime glands which had appeared just
below the pleural row, and running along with it, a slime
gland for each phosphorescent organ ; third, in the central
slime gland row of the lateral row, where the slime glands
were changed into phosphorescent organs ; and, fourth, in
the organs of the mandibular row, which though in some
specimens only slime glands, in this fish possessed lenses,
reflectors, and a little pigment.

Indeed, even by examining the small series of speci-
mens of Porichthys contained in the Museum of Indiana
University, some twenty fish in all, the evolution of the
phosphorescent organs from slime glands is apparent.

In order that the various points of the organs of the dif-+
ferent rows may be described and understood, I will des-
ignate the “ends” of the organs as anterior and posterior,
according to the end of the fish they are nearest. Like-
wise the “sides” are called dorsal and ventral from their
respective proximity to those surfaces of the fish.

Series of sections of the following rows were cut: outer
anal, frontal, upper opercular, gastric, pleural, lateral and
ventral.

The outer anal organs (fig. 7) are, from a surface view,
almost exactly circular. The broad spicular layer is thick-
est, and slightly turned up at the edges. ‘Thus, it is

IN PORICHTHYS. 49

cup-shaped, holding in the depression the rather thick con-
nective tissue capsule, on which rests the lens. The por-
tion of the capsule above the lens is thin. The fibrous
connective tissue above the lens is rather thick and firm.
No pigment is under the centre of the organ, but in the
tissue at the sides, and below the edges of the spicular
layer, there are a few flakes of it. The spicular layer thins
out at the ends, but some few spicules continue to the ad-
jacent organs. At the ventral or inner (nearest the fin)
side of the anterior end of the organ, a small blood vessel
goes over the edge of the spicular layer to the capsule,
from a blood-vessel at that side of, and below, the organ.

Looking at the frontal organs (fig. 3)in situ, the spicu-
lar layer reflects the light so as to give them the appear-
ance of minute silver dots. The spicular layer is thin, and
turned up at the inner (dorsal) side. Above, and lying on
the spicular layer, is a mass that corresponds, probably, to
the capsule of the outer anal, etc. Embedded in the cen-
tre of this mass is a smaller one of about the same shape,
which resembles the lens in staining darker than its ma-
trix. No distinct cells can be seen in any part of the mass,
nor is there any distinct line of demarcation between it and
the fibrous connective tissue. Beneath the reflector is a
layer of pigment, and at each side is pigment partly con-
nected with that below. There are several blood-vessels
in the fibrous connective tissue, but the exact point of con-
necting with the organ could not be made out.

In the organs of the upper opercular row (fig. 4) the
dorsal side of the spicular layer is turned up, and slightly
over, making in this acute angle, a sort of pocket. This
pocket is filled up with the connective tissue capsule, which
is rather thin above the lens. At the ventral side of the
organ, posteriorly, is the nourishing blood-vessel. In con-
tact with the curved portion of the spicular layer, both

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI. 4

50 THE PHOSPHORESCENT ORGANS

above and below, there are several thin, broad patches of
pigment. The spicular layer thins out ventrally, but ex-
tends a short distance beyond the lens. The ends of the
spicular layer are slightly turned up, though not nearly so
much so as the dorsal side.

The gastric row has organs (fig. 6) very similar to those
of the upper opercular. The spicular layer forms a pocket
with the bottom at the dorsal side, and the ends are turned
up. But there is not so much material in the capsule, and
the lens is flatter. There is no pigment. The fibrous
connective tissue over the organ is comparatively thick.
The blood-vessel enters at the ventral side.

The pleural organs (fig. 5) resemble the gastric, but
the spicular layer does not form so deep a pocket. The
spicular layer extends half the width of the organ below it
(ventrally). The lens is flatter, and the capsule is thin-
ner on all sides of the lens, than in the gastric organs.
There are masses of pigment at the dorsal side of the spic-
ular pocket, and flakes above and below it. The blood-
vessel enters at the ventral side.

The large organs of the lateral row, with the exception
of having the spicular pocket a little deeper, are similar
to the pleural.

The small organs are exactly like the frontal organs.

The ventral organs are like the outer anal, except that
the spicular layer forms a little deeper cup, and the fibrous
connective tissue over the organ is thicker.

Though sections of them were not cut, yet, judging from
the external appearances, it may be safe to conclude that
the dorsal and occipital organs are like the frontal, those
on the sides of the head like the upper opercular, and those
on the throat like the outer anal.

As will be seen by the foregoing, these organs, though
varying much among themselves, are formed upon one gen-

IN PORICHTHYS. 51

eral plan. A lack of literature renders it impossible for me
to go into comparisons with previously described types as
I could wish.

They but very remotely resemble those described by
Ussow! in Scopelus, while of all the types described by
Dr. von Lendenfeld,? they are more nearly related to his
“simple, regular ocellar phosphorescent organs with pig-
ment,” as will be seen from the following abstract of his
description. He says this type consists of “a sac,” “about
as deep as wide, cylindrical, rounded below, and opening
outwards by a circular aperture, which is covered by a con-
tinuation of the cuticle.” This sac “ is formed of a dense
layer of pigment,” and the “ lower proximal part of the sac
is occupied by radially placed pyramidal gland-tubes, close-
ly packed, and therefore flattened against each other. Their
wide distal ends are rounded and nerves and blood vessels
radiate upwards between the tubes.” “These tubes are filled
with spherical or slightly irregular granular cells.” “In the
centre of the organs within the terminations of the gland-
tubes, there is a space, which is filled with a granular se-
cretion. The portion of the organ underlying the cuticle
is also granular, but it is easy to perceive that this portion
of the glands is occupied by cells.”

This type of organ has no spicular reflecting layer what-
ever, while in Porichthys, the reflector, next to the lens,
is the most noticeable part of the organ. In fact the gen-
eral shape is the only thing they have in common.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.
a = anal row.

aa = angular row.
c = connective tissue capsule.

1M. Ussow, Ueber den Bau der sogenannten Flecken einiger Knochenfische, Bull.
Soc. imp. des. Nat. Moscou, t. Liv, No. 1. p. 79, 1879.

2R. von Lendenfeld, Report on the Structure of the Phosphorescent Organs of
Fishes, Challenger Reports, Zoology, Vol. XXII, pp. 277-329, plates LXIX-LXXII.

52 THE PHOSPHORESCENT ORGANS IN PORICHTHYS.

d = dorsal row.
e = fibrous connective tissue.
J = frontal row.
g = gular row.
ga = gastric row.
l in fig. 1 = lateral row; in figs. 3, 4, 5,6 and 7 = lens.
md = mandibular row.
o = occipital row.
oo = orbitoral row.
op = opercular row.
p =pectoral row.
pg = pigment.
pl = pleural row.
po = postorbital row.
r = reflector.
s = scapular row.
sb = sub-branchial row.
so = sub-opercular rows.
v = ventral row.
Fic. 1.— Left side of Porichthys, showing arrangement of phosphor-
escent organs. X 4.
Fig. 2.— Ventral view of Porichthys, X 4.
Fic. 3.—- Section of frontal organ, X 235.
Fic. 4.— Section of upper opercular organ, X 235.
Fic. 5.— Section of pleural organ, X 235.
Fig. 6.— Section of gastric organ, X 235.
Fia. 7.— Section of outer anal organ, X 235.

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BULLETIN

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Vou. 21. SALEM: AprIL, May, June, 1889. Nos. 4-5-6.

BERLIN: A STUDY OF MUNICIPAL GOVERN-
MENT IN GERMANY.

BY SYLVESTER BAXTER.

BERLIN has impressed me as the most smoothly running
city that I have ever seen. Professor Richard T. Ely,
who has made a masterly study of such subjects, declares
that it is the best governed city in the world. My own
observations were, at the time of my stay in the German
capital, more directed towards results: therefore, before
proceeding to an examination of the methods which have
made these results possible, let me give you a picture,
imperfectly outlined though it must be, of the city as it im-
presses a stranger with its most salient external features.

I must observe, however, that some of these features are
the work of the national, rather than the municipal gov-
ernment; but an account of them is appropriate here, as
illustrative of German methods.

We are accustomed to look for rapid growth and strik-
ing transformations of aspect in our American cities, but
we are hardly prepared for similar phenomena in the slower-

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI &* (53)

54 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

paced countries of Europe. I have had opportunities to
watch the development of several of our foremost Amer-
ican centres during the past decade, but nowhere have I
witnessed mightier changes than those which the German
Kaiserstadt has undergone since I previously beheld it in
1877. Then, indeed, it was a city of much magnificence,
but it was in the transition state due to its recent assump-
tion of imperial honors, with many defects manifest to the
visitor, in the shape of wretched pavements of cobble-stone,
a bad drainage system, accompanied by a high death rate,
inconvenient methods of local transit, and other reminders
of the more provincial days before the great empire sprang
into existence. Berlin is one of the most splendid capitals
of Europe, hardly surpassed even by Paris in grandeur, and
with its population of a million and a half, is the second
city of the continent in size and the first in industrial rank.
It is growing with the pace of a Chicago, and every year
beholds enormous areas of the surrounding sand-plains cov-
ered densely with the new houses of the expanding city.
Here, in the “ sandbox of Germany ” amid the barren plains
of the old Mark Brandenburg, the cradle of the Hohenzol-
lern might, the tireless energy and persistence of the Prus-
sians have built up the chief city of the most powerful em-
pire of Europe.

Berlin is truly a model city, and should the authorities
of any of our great American towns really desire to learn
how best to make their municipalities as agreeable and con-
venient for their inhabitants as possible, I would earnestly
counsel them to make a careful study of the great German
capital, where everything runs like clockwork, and no one
system of public “improvements ” is permitted to interfere
with the working of any other system. In consequence,
every thing is the best of its kind, and the manifold annoy-
ances attendant upon existence in a great, city, and which al-

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. Hy)

most imperceptibly make a tremendous drain upon the ner-
vous energy of the population, are reduced to a minimum.

We occasionally hear the Germans spoken of as “slow
going,” but that epithet would better apply to the insular
English. There is probably no nation more thoroughly

imbued with the spirit of progress than Germany. It is
remarkable, the quickness with which the Germans seize
upon a great modern invention as soon as its utility has
been demonstrated, adapt it to their wants, improve upon
it and popularize it by giving it the maximum of cheapness
and efficiency. We Americans, fertile in resource and in-
ventive as we are, are too apt to content ourselves with
makeshifts, looking too much to cheapness at the expense
of real efficiency ; we are too ready to experiment upon the
public at the cost of its convenience, and the result is of-
ten a popular disgust with a valuable improvement that
really delays its final adoption. It is therefore at least a
question whether Germany does not make fully as rapid
progress by her policy of insisting upon having things well
and thoroughly done at the start.

The principal streets of Berlin are nearly all paved with
asphalt, and they are such marvels of cleanliness and
smoothness that one feels the same respect for them as for
a nice drawing room, and scruples to litter them even with
a scrap of paper. The most frequented ones are literally
washed and scrubbed every night; after being wet down
a few men or boys proceed along the road, pushing before
them pieces of board set diagonally on a pole, with a strip
of rubber onthe lower side. The mud is thus transferred
from the course of one man to another, and finally left in
the gutter, whence it is removed. The consequent free-
dom of the city from dust is very marked. The smooth-
ness of the pavement affords immense relief in diminishing
the confusing noise and jar of the streets. Waking early

56 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

in the morning at a hotel in the centre of the business sec-
tion, one perceives no rattling of wagons, enly the clatter
of the horses’ hoofs, so that it seems as if cavalry regiments
were continually passing. The smooth streets have also
made cycling very popular, and tricycles are extensively
used for business purposes. The broad sidewalks are laid
with flagging in the centre, and between that and the curb-
stone are paved with small, mosaic-like stones that form
a smooth surface, and are easily removed and replaced.
Beneath this space are laid the gas pipes, telegraph and
electric light wires, pneumatic tubes, etc., so that in lay-
ing or repairing these the street pavement is not disturbed.
The wires of the arc lights, as well as of the incandescent,
all are carried underground, and in Berlin there are not to
be seen the unsightly poles that so disfigure our streets in
American cities, where rival corporations are given un-
limited license to fight each other and prey upon the pub-
lic. Only the telephone wires are carried overhead, run-
ning over the roofs of the buildings, and these are now
being put underground in cables, as far as possible. In
consequence of the admirable method pursued there is no
interference of one electric system with another; that foe
of the telephone service, induction from other wires, is
kept at bay, and the patrons of the telephone are not driven
frantic by the interference of the clicking of the telegraph
or the buzzing of the electric-light dynamos; neither is
there the danger of an arc-light wire dropping down and
burning out the telephone with its current, setting fires and
perhaps killing whoever may be using the telephone at the
time ; a contingency, which, under our American happy-
go-lucky policy, is constantly threatening us.

Our arc-light people have claimed that, owing to the
peculiarities of the current, it is impracticable to carry their
systems underground, and so they-have been free to sus-

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. a7

pend their murderous wires over our heads, a constant
menace, like the sword of Damocles. In Berlin, however,
the wires have been carried underground from the start,
and no difficulty has been experienced. Instead of adding
new ugliness to the streets, the are-lights of Berlin are
things of beauty, an artistic embellishment to the city.
Unter den Linden is probably the most brilliantly and beau-
tifully illuminated street in the world. Along each side
and down the centre, where there is a double row of trees
similar to Commonwealth avenue in Boston, the arc-lights
are set even more closely together than ordinary gas lamps,
and the effect at night is that of great strings of white,
gleaming pearls. The posts consist of graceful iron stand-
ards, with tasteful ornamentation and curving over at the
top. Here the globe is suspended, inclosed in a coarse
network, so that, in case it breaks, the pieces of glass may
not fall on passers. From the globe there hangs a light
chain, with a ring in the end, and there are counterbalanc-
ing weights inside the post, so that the lamp is quickly
and easily attended to by pulling it down with a light stick,
with a hook in the end—a great improvement, in the
economy of time and trouble, over our clumsy methods
of either climbing the post or lowering the light by an
unwieldy and ugly crane.

The incandescent light is very extensively used. It il-
luminates all the first class theatres, halls, hotels, and many
stores and private houses.

The telephone-service is admirable, as is testified by the
public appreciation, there being over 10,000 instruments
in use in Berlin. There are no private telephone compa-
nies in Germany, the telephone, like the telegraph, being
a branch of the postal-service. The price for telephone
service is low, the annual charge for an instrument being
one hundred and twenty marks a year, or something less

58 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

than thirty dollars. The long-distance service between
the principal cities of the empire is being rapidly intro-
duced. By reason of the telephone being a part of the
postal-service, patrons are afforded conveniences beyond
those enjoyed by us in the land where the Bell Telephone
Company is earning profits of 30 per cent. annually. A
telegram received for a person who has a telephone is at
once delivered orally from the central office, and the writ-
ten message then forwarded by the local post. Likewise
a telegram is transmitted by the sender to the telegraph
office by telephone. The telephones in use are manufact-
ured by Siemens & Halske, the great electricians, and are
said to be agreat improvement upon the Bell patent, upon
which they are based.

The efficiency of the German postal-service, with its
branches of telegraph, telephone, pneumatic tube and par-
cel post, is asufficient reply to the assertions that the con-
venience of the public cannot be so well met as by private
corporations having control of the various means of inter-
course. Postmaster General Stefan is always on the look-
out for opportunities for improvement, and is quick to seize
upon any new means afforded by modern inventions for
increasing the efficiency of the service. The Imperial Pos-
tal Museum in Berlin is a most interesting place to visit.
Here can be seen models of all the various devices used in
the service, as well as a valuable historical collection illus-
trating postal intercourse from the earliest times. Postal
administration is regarded in Germany as a practical science
in itself, and no means is neglected to promote the interest
of members of the service in its study. At the postal
museum there is one of Edison’s original phonographs,
and a high official of the service told me that the depart-
ment was anxious to secure one of the improved ones at
the earliest possible moment, in order to see what use

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 59

might be made of it in the department, and we may be sure
that, if a good use is found for it, it will be put into appli-
cation without delay. The pneumatic-tube service of the
Berlin post-office, for the quick delivery of letters, etc., is
a great improvement upon our special delivery system.
The pneumatic lines radiate out over the city from a cen-
tral station, connecting various local stations at frequent
intervals, so that a message is delivered in almost any
part of the great city within half an hour. The postage
for the pneumatic service is 25 pfennige, or 64 cents. Tele-
grams are very extensively sent and delivered by means ay
the pneumatic service.

Now contrast the efficiency of the German post-office
with its widely comprehensive functions, with the condi-
tion of things in the United States, where, indeed, the
postoflice itself, pure and simple, is reasonably efficient,
considering our slipshod and barbarous civil-service sys-
tem, but where the public is at the mercy of two great and
greedy monopolies for the telegraph and telephone service,
which have become as essentially a part of public intercourse
as the carrying of the mails, and are just as properly a legit-
imate function of the government ; as Germany wisely rec-
ognizes. It must eventually be perceived in the United
States that the only remedy for the extortionate and in-
efficient telegraph-service to which the public is now sub-
ject is the government administration thereof, although
when Congress is “ influenced” by the Western Union Com-
pany with free telegraphic passes, as Senator Ingalls un-
intentionally confessed a few months ago, it is probable
that only an overwhelming public pressure can effect the
change. The despotism of a plutocracy is becoming a se-
rious danger in the United States.

A like increased efficiency of service has followed the
resumption of the control of the railways by the Prussian

60 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

government. A prominent business man of Berlin told
me that he had originally been strongly opposed to gov-
ernment ownership of the railways, but he now saw that
it was the best thing that could have happened. The pub-
lic convenience had been vastly increased by better and
more frequent train service, cheaper rates, and the avoid-
ance of the ruinous competition of private corporations,
while every diminution of the evils of stock gambling, such
as was occasioned by the withdrawal of the railway ele-
ment from the market, was a direct benefit to legitimate
business and the public at large.

In the great cities the stations are mostly on a grand
scale and of beautiful architectural design, expressing the
character of the building. In England, under private con-
trol, the railway stations are almost universally mere
sheds, differing only in magnitude, with hardly a rudiment
of artistic design, and little attention paid to the comfort
of passengers, while their sides are so plastered with ad-
vertising that, when a train stops at a way-station, it is
with great difficulty that a stranger can detect the name
of the place.

The Stadtbahn, or city railway, in Berlin is a great con-
venience. It is an elevated railway traversing the city
from east to west, and connecting with the Ringbahn, or
belt railway, that surrounds the city. Both belong to the
Prussian government, and are of great military value, en-
abling the saving of two or three days in the mobilization
of troops and their rapid transportation through the city in
case of need. The Stadtbahn is built upon substantial
brick arches throughout its length, and, instead of occu-
pying the streets at the expense of the abuttors, as in New
York, the right of way was purchased for it, and the build-
ings were demolished to make way for it. ‘The stations
are elaborate and handsome affairs, with arching roofs sim-

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 61

ilar to the Lowell stations in Boston. There are four tracks,
two for local and two for through traffic, and all express
trains from distant cities are brought into one grand cen-
tral station at the Friedrichstrasse, in the heart of the city.
The hackman nuisance, common to our railway terminal,
is obviated by having an official stationed at the exits from
the station, from whom passengers receive a check for a
cab, finding the corresponding number waiting on the street.
The railway also provides porters to take out and bring in
the baggage, receiving a moderate and stated fee for their
service.

The street-railway system of Berlin is excellent. It is
all in the hands of one great company, as in Boston, and
the cars thread the streets in every direction, gliding
smoothly and rapidly over rails grooved in the centre and
jointed diagonally, effering no obstacle to the traffic of
wagons and carriages. The cars only stop at stated points,
indicated by a little sign at the edge of the sidewalk. The
movement of cars is thus materially accelerated, and so
accustomed is the public to this arrangement that even la-
dies who wish to get off at a point where the car does not
stop often skip lightly off while it is in motion. There is
also an omnibus company doing a large business. Many of
its vehicles are very similar to street cars in construction,
with large platforms behind, and with wheels hardly larger
than those of the cars. They move more smoothly over
the asphalt.

Berlin has an admirable park system, with which the art
of the landscape gardener has done wonders in creating
beautiful passages of woodland and meadow, charming
contrasts of tree and shrubbery groupings with intervening
glades, out of the monotonous flat country amid which lies
the German capital. There are four great parks around
Berlin, and a fifth of lesser size, the Victoria Park, named

~

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI vo

62 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

in honor of the Empress Friedrich, has recently been be-
gun. Beautiful rural scenery is thus brought within con-
venient distance of nearly all parts of the city. The Thier-
garten, composed principally of a noble old forest, has
been greatly improved within the past few years, and is
now one of the finest parks of Europe. The other great
parks are the Friedrichshain, the Humboldthain and the
Teltower Anlagen. The latter runs along the Spree for
several kilometers to the northeastward of the city, and
shows what charming landscape effects can be wrought in
a perfectly flat region. The Humboldthain, being situated
where the river bottom in which the greater part of Berlin
is built rises to the surrounding upland plain, has the ad-
vantage of ground that is diversified by graceful undula-
tions. The park was named in honor of Wilhelm von Hum-
boldt, and contains a simple and beautiful monument to the
memory of the great naturalist—only a heap of naturally
disposed boulders, amidst a clump of shrubbery, and
overgrown with ferns and moss. From beneath a stone,
simply inscribed to the effect that the monument was erect-
ed by the city of Berlin to the memory of her distinguished
son, there trickles a pretty little rill of clear water that
runs merrily through the bushes down the slope into a
calm pool.

Throughout the city nearly all the open places are oc-
cupied by beautiful gardens, arranged with charming grace
and simplicity, the effect depending more upon harmoni-
ous groupings of shrubbery and graceful trailing of clam-
bering vines than upon elaborate flower beds. These
urban gardens are extensively used for children’s play-
grounds, and here and there are placed great heaps of
sand upon the broad walks in which swarms of little ones
may be seen digging and burrowing all the day to their
heart’s content.

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 63

The form of the municipal government of Berlin is, in
general, that prevailing throughout Prussia, as determined
by the municipal reform laws created by the great states-
men Stein and Hardenberg in 1808: the laws which have
given a general model for the forms of municipal govern-
ment now prevailing throughout the German Empire.

The growth of cities in Germany dates back to the early
Middle Ages, when the country gradually took on the
modes of civilization. The cities grew up out of the orig-
inal Roman colonies and from the populations clustered
about the castles of the local rulers. Trading points and
market places also grew in importance, and assumed the
shape of cities.

In the Middle Ages there were, in general, three great
classes comprising, respectively, the powerful nobility, the
dwellers in the towns, and the agricultural population.
The cities became so powerful as to hold rank with the no-
bility, between whom and the landed population bitter con-
flicts often arose. This state of things is pictured in an old
German student’s song which compares the entire popu-
lation to a glass of beer, the nobility being the foam, the
burgesses the substantial liquid, and the much oppressed
peasantry the dregs. When the peasantry found them-
selves too hardly treated by the nobility, they often fled
to the cities, and appealed to the latter for protection.
Sometimes they could not be received within the city, for
the lack of room, or other reasons, and were allowed to
settle outside of the walls, where they enjoyed the protec-
tion of the city, but were not privileged with the full rights
of those dwelling within the walls. In this way were de-
veloped the various classes into which the city population
was divided: the patricians, the various trade-guilds and
the ultra-mural population. ‘The cities, as they grew in
power, recognized the advantages that would come from

64 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

united action, and in Germany, in and after the Interreg-
num, from 1254 to 1272, there were organized three great
confederations : that of the Rhine, the famous Hanseatic
league, and the great confederacy of Suabian cities, ex-
tending from the foot of the Alps to the mouth of the river
Main. Cities, at this period, grew so in power that they
obtained representation in the governments throughout Eu-
rope, and, with their great wealth and prosperity, they be-
came the parents of modern civilization. In them there
first was developed the modern republican form of govern-
ment, and in Germany the numerous free cities became in-
tegral parts of the empire, on a par with the princely states,
and owing allegiance only to the Emperor. Of these,
since the annexation of Frankfort by Prussia, in 1866, there
now only remain Hamburg, Bremen and Liibeck. These
three “free cities” are living examples of the way in which
cities formerly exercised a domain over considerable tracts
of territory frequently not adjacent, but often lying at
some distance with lands of other states intervening and
are, in reality, Republican states in the present Empire.

The medieval forms of municipal government survived,
to some extent, down to the Reforms of 1808, when a
complete reorganization took place. This reform system
has only been modified to adapt itself to the changed con-
dition of suffrage, etc., prevailing to-day. In it is exhib-
ited the working of the German ideas of self-government
by the people, which, in the cities, have been exemplified
to the fullest extent.

While throughout the Empire universal manhood suf-
frage prevails, in the city governments the suffrage is slight-
ly restricted. Every honest inhabitant obtains the electoral
franchise after a year’s residence and at the age of twenty-
four, if he pays what is called a class tax on an income of
about one hundred and fifty dollars. These restrictions

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 65

make the qualified voters in Berlin about thirteen per cent
less in number at municipal elections than in the national
elections.

In the government of Berlin, we have the spectacle of
one of the greatest cities of the world administered with
the utmost economy and efficiency, attaining the most splen-
did results for the comfort and convenience of the public,
without the suspicion of jobbery, and everything attended
to with the thoroughness and conscientiousness which here
we are only accustomed to expect in private enterprises.
Professor Ely praises the open conduct of the government,
with its reports submitted with the greatest of detailed
clearness, rendering the accounts to the last penny, and
with the motives and plans of the officials completely de-
scribed. In reading one of these reports he remarks that
“one finds it difficult not to believe it a description of some
city government in Utopia.”

Public spirit is also nourished into a splendid growth by
this system. Over ten thousand citizens take part in the
administration of affairs, and, in the city government, one
looks for the best and most prominent citizens among the
members, and not the worst, —and finds them, too. For
example: there are men like Professor Virchow, Professor
Gneist, and others from the University, and natural leaders
in public life ; men of world-wide reputation and ranking
as statesmen, taking their regular part in the routine of
city affairs. Professor Gneist has been a member of the city
government since 1848. ‘To shirk these responsibilities
is hardly possible for any man, even if it were desired by
him, for every citizen is obliged, under penalty ofa fine and
a heavy increase of taxation, to accept any position to which
he may be elected.

The Berlin system aims at the greatest efficiency and
economy attainable under a fundamentally popular repre-

66 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

sentative form. The broad basis of the government is to
be found in the Municipal Assembly, a bedy composed of
one hundred and twenty-six members, representing the
three hundred and twenty-six wards of the city. One-half
at least must be house-owners ; and two brothers, or father
and son, are not allowed to be members at the same time.
The members of this body are chosen for six years, one-
third retiring every two years, so that there is a municipal
election once in two years. This gives the great desid-
eratum of permanency, a principle which is embodied firmly
throughout the entire municipal structure. As with a phys-
ical organism in its process of growth, the changes in a
German city government are gradual, not violent. The ex-
ample set by nature is wisely followed. The long terms of
members give them experience, and the remaining in of-
fice ef a large majority of old members assures the man-
agement of affairs by persons thoroughly conversant with
municipal business. This Assembly directly represents the
people, and out of it proceed all the other features of the
municipal government. It has the entire financial control
of affairs, being supreme in drawing up the budget for the
year, and in authorizing extraordinary expenditures. It has
no executive functions as a body, but its members exercise
them individually in association with other branches ot the
government.

This Assembly chooses the upper branch of the city gov-
ernment, known as the Magistracy, and composed of the
Board of Mayor and Aldermen, the latter thirty-two in
number, fifteen of whom are salaried, while seventeen are
honorary members with no salaries whatever. The Mayor
is chosen for a period of twelve years, nominally subject
to the approval of the king. His salary is thirty thousand
marks, equal to about seventy-five hundred dollars, which,
in its purchasing value in Germany, would probably be

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 67

substantially the same as the ten thousand dollars paid to
our Mayor here in Boston. It is a post of the highest
honor, and may be considered equivalent to a life position,
for when there is a vacancy in this office in a large German
city it is customary for the authorities to survey the field
throughout the country, and select from the mayors of other
cities some man of the highest qualifications for executive
and general business efficiency ; and the person thus agreed
upon can usually make his own conditions and be sure of
reélection when his term expires, if he does not choose
to retire upon a liberal pension. One mayor of Berlin,
when chosen, refuised to accept the position unless certain
objectional state laws were repealed, and the government
was prevailed upon by the city authorities to take such
action. The present mayor of Berlin, von Forckenbeck,
was mayor of the large city of Breslau when called to Ber-
lin. The mayor has general direction of the Board of
Aldermen, and is almost absolute in the disposal of city
business.

The fifteen salaried aldermen are elected for twelve years
by the municipal counsel, with especial regard to the qual-
ifications for administering the departments ever which they
are to rule. Their salaries being higher than those of the
local judges and the higher members of the Civil Service,
the offices are made attractive to the best class of men, who
must have received a thorough training in the splendid
civil service of Prussia from which they were chosen. It
is also the custom to re-elect these men on the expiration
of their terms, if they do not choose to retire on their pen-
sions. These paid aldermen consist of the deputy mayor,
two legal advisers, the city treasurer, two school council-
lors, two architects, and seven aldermen without special
title who may be assigned to any positions they are deemed
most fit to eccupy. These men correspond to the heads

68 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

of our various department commissions, but it is a great
advantage to have them regular members of the Board of
Aldermen, where they may take part in the deliberations.

The seventeen unpaid aldermen are chosen by the As-
sembly for terms of six years, are usually taken from the
higher class of citizens and, indeed, from those members
of the Assembly itself, who have distinguished themselves
by years of efficient service in various departments. Their
positions are esteemed of great honor, and the incumbents
assume the same duties as those of the paid aldermen. They
are also usually reélected at the end of their term, so that
any competent man may be a member of the city govern-
ment for life, if he chooses ; and under this system it would
be difficult for an incompetent member to be elected. Pro-
fessor Gneist, in his admirable paper contributed to the
Contemporary Review five years ago, and to which I am
largely indebted for the details of this effort, as well as to
the kind suggestions of Professor Woodrow Wilson of
Wesleyan and Professor Ely, calls this Board of Aldermen
“the soul of the government of the city,” and points out
that its ability to control the wide range of important in-
terests of so large a community is due to the excellent di-
vision of labor which has gradually developed itself in the
management of the business.

Returning to the municipal assembly, I must describe
the peculiar manner in which it is chosen by the people.
The voters of the city are divided into three classes, a sys-
tem which prevails throughout Prussia, and, I believe,
throughout Germany. These classes are divided accord-
ing to the rate of taxes they pay. In the first class come
those heaviest tax-payers who pay one-third of the entire
levy. In the second class come those who pay the next
third: while the third class comprises all the rest of the
tax-payers. Each of these classes chooses one-third of the

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 69

assemblymen who are to be voted for at an election. In
consequence a majority of the assembly is chosen by a mi-
nority of the voters; the principle prevailing in municipal
suffrage in Germany being similar to that in a financial cor-
poration, where voters exercise a power corresponding to
that of the number of shares they hold. At a recent elec-
tion the number of voters in the first class was a little ever
three thousand ; in the second class a little less than sixteen
thousand, while the small tax-payers, in the third class,
numbered over one hundred and sixty-six thousand. Itis
usually the case in a German election in the large cities
that the first and second-class vote is either “liberal” or
“progressive,” while the third-class vote manifests conserv-
ative, radical and socialistic tendencies.

The two chambers are supplemented by a body of sev-
enty “citizen deputies,” as they are called, selected by the
Assembly from distinguished citizens to serve on general
committees for the administration of special affairs, such
as the relief of the poor, the conduct of the schools, etc.
At the head of these committees an alderman acts as chair-
man, and other aldermen may be leading members; and
members of the assembly, together with the citizen depu-
ties, form the rest of the membership. Under this exec-
utive staff of two hundred and thirty members, composed
of aldermen, assemblymen and citizen deputies—nearly all
honorary officials are men of independent means who can
afford to give their time to the city—there is a large staff
of paid officials who are appointed for life, as is the rule in
the German Civil Service. This system of life-appoint-
ment combines efficiency with cheapness, for a man is nat-
urally willing to serve for a lower salary when assured of
employment for life. Salaries are also increased with in-
crease of efficiency, and the first few years of official ser-
vice are probationary.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI. 5*

70 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

With the administration of justice the magistracy has
considerable to do, and jury-lists are made up in a manner
similar to that prevailing in our city governments. Minor
criminal cases are tried, not by jury, but by a court con-
sisting of the local judge, aided by two citizens drawn from
the jury-list, who have a full and equal vote with the judge.
The arbitrators for that useful institution, the Courts of
Arbitration, are also selected by the magistracy. As as-
sistants to the courts in the guardianship of orphans, etc.,
small committees are selected for service in the various
wards, comprising one hundred and seventy-one chairmen,
six hundred and thirty-six citizens, and some hundred la-
dies.

In Berlin, and some other large cities, the police is ad-
ministered by the State instead of the city. The force con-
sists of something like three thousand men, besides their
officers ; and the expense, amounting to nearly four hun-
dred thousand dollars annually, is borne by the city.
Certain branches of the police, not concerned in the pre-
servation of the peace but in the general public welfare,
are administered by the city; such as looking after the
trade societies, benevolent institutions, etc., as well as san-
itary matters, and the construction of streets, etc.

The great transformation in the appearance of the streets
in Berlin, which has taken place within the past fourteen
years, is due to a change of administration from the State
to the city. The State, up to 1874, had the maintenance
of the Berlin streets in charge, and was reluctant to grant
sufficient appropriations for the purpose; therefore visi-
tors were astonished at the wretched condition of the pave-
ments, sewers, bridges, etc. Now, however, since the
city has assumed the work, it has been carried on with
magnificent enterprise and energy, resulting in the perfect
pavements, beautiful new bridges, fine public carriages,

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 71

the best street-railway system in Europe, an excellent
water-supply, and the gigantic sewerage-system, that now
go so far to give Berlin its character.

The system of taxation comprises an income-tax of three
per cent. on all incomes above a certain amount; a house-
and-rent-tax, apportioned between the landlord and the
tenant; and various minor special taxes.

The relief of the poor is performed by two hundred and
twenty-three local commissions, each composed of between
four and twelve citizens, or honorary members, with the
assemblyman of the district as member ex officio. Some-
thing like sixteen hundred citizens take part in this work,
and the methods employed are directed towards assisting
the worthy poor people without the imposition of degrad-
ing conditions. One feature is the assignment of certain
city lands to the poor, for planting with potatoes. Only
vagabonds and altogether unworthy persons are sent to
the workhouse. The charitable institutions of the city are
numerous and well conducted. The relief of the poor, in
1881-1882, cost over one million one hundred thousand
dollars. This system probably accounts for the marked
absence of evidences of distressing poverty. The contrast
between Berlin and London, in this respect, with the bru-
tality, crime, degradation and misery of the latter city, is
almost as marked as that between Paradise and the Inferno.
The fire brigade of Berlin is a military organization with
seven hundred and fifty men, besides officers, and was main-
tained in 1882 at a cost of about three hundred and sev-
enty thousand dollars. The cleaning of the streets is ad-
mirably done. It always takes place between midnight
and eight o’clock in the morning, a marked contrast to the
methods prevailing with us, where we frequently see a
street-sweeping machine operating at mid-day, filling the air
with filthy dust, to the annoyance of multitudes. Dirt, snow

72 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

and ice are premptly removed, and the sidewalks, as well
as the roadways, are thoroughly cleaned by the city. The
cost of the paving is very considerably diminished by the
street-railway company, which, by its concession, is obliged
to pave the whole of the streets through which its tracks
pass with the best ef pavement, besides paying a certain
percentage of its receipts to the city. This source of rev-
enue for the municipality now amounts to something like
two hundred and fifty thousand dollars a year, besides
having a large proportion of its streets paved without ex-
pense to itself, and, in 1911, the street-railway with its
entire equipment becomes the property of the city.

The municipal gas-works yielded, at last accounts, some-
thing like eighteen per cent. of the entire annual expendi-
ture of the city as profit.

The water-works, also, yield an annual profit of consid-
erably over a quarter of a million dollars; and even the
great sewerage system has produced a net revenue of
something like the same figure, through the annual rate im-
posed upon house-owners for the use of sewers.

The school system of Berlin is one of the prides of the
city. It is controlled by a school-board composed of mem-
bers of the city government, superintendents of the church-
dioceses together with the dean of the Catholic churches,
and eighty-seven local committees, upon which something
like thirteen hundred citizens serve. There were, in 1881,
one hundred and eighteen large common schools, attended
by rich and poor alike, with one hundred and forty-two
head masters, fourteen hundred and seventy-one male
teachers, seven hundred and thirty-four school mistresses
and five hundred and fifteen technical instructors. There
are, besides, ten gymnasiums, corresponding to our Latin
schools, seven real-schools, corresponding to our English
high-schools, two industrial schools and four high-schools

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 73

for girls; all very largely attended, besides six State
schools, comprising four gymnasiums, one real-school
and one high-school for girls. Another important class
of schools, die Fortbildungsschulen, or supplementary
schools, was founded by the city to enable apprentices and
clerks to continue their studies. There are twelve schools
of this kind. There are also Sunday classes for young
people of both sexes, maintained chiefly by private sub-
scription. Every school building has a gymnasium, large
and well equipped, for athletic instruction ; and besides,
there is a Turn Halle, a great and model institution for
athletic training ;also something like ninety private schools,
that find it more and more difficult to compete with the
public schools, so excellent are the latter. These private
schools are also under the supervision of the public school
authorities, and must conform to public standards; there
are also twenty-two public libraries, mostly in the charge
of the head masters, for sending out instructive books,
free of charge.

The net debt of the city is but little over four million
dollars, a decrease of nearly two million since 1876. This
is a contrast to New York, whose net debt is over one hun-
dred million dollars, and Boston with a net debt of some-
thing like twenty-five million dollars.

Owing to the excellent condition of the finances, Berlin
has founded a number of institutions of credit on the se-
curity of the wealth of the city. One is a municipal sav-
ings bank, with deposits now amounting to something
between twelve and thirteen million dollars, with thirty-
nine offices for receiving deposits in various parts of the
town. It pays an interest of three and one-third per cent.
There is also a municipal fire insurance office, in which
all the house-owners are obliged to insure. In 1882, the
value of buildings insured was over five hundred million

74 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

dollars and since that time has enormously increased.
Owing to the substantial construction of the city and the
excellent fire-department, the annual premium is only five
or six cents on a hundred dollars. Another city institu-
tion is a mortgage bank, established in the interest of the
credit of real estate, issuing on varying terms mortgages
at four, four and one-half and five per cent.

A striking fact in connection with the Berlin city gov-
ernment is its effect upon party feeling among its members.
While considerations of party govern, to some extent, in
the elections, Professor Gneist assures us that “the party
element soon gets smoothed in the intimate deliberations
of the board of aldermen, in the great committees and in
the numerous committees of wards. These animosities of
party get gradually blurred and finally blotted out alto-
gether in the common toil of daily work for the interests
of the community. The results of this activity teach
every day that it has been the aim and object of the com-
munitates to smooth down and to obliterate social hostil-
ye

We have found the city government of Berlin forming
a large and compact organization, its various functions
closely interrelated at the nucleus and ramifying out, like
the rays of crystallization in a chemical solution, into the
great mass of common citizenship. We have seen that its
result is an almost ideal business-like management of af-
fairs, with economy and efficiency combined, resting upon
a self-government most thoroughly republican and pro-
moting public spirit among the most influential citizens.

We have the example: now as to its application. All
systems of government are but expedients of time and
place, and that form is the best which produces the best
results. A candid examination of our American systems
will show that, on the whole, they fall far behind the

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 75

standard of efficiency that should prevail. We see too
often the worst men in charge, and the best citizens either
totally repelled by the character of the associations pre-
vailing in our city halls, or only spasmodically aroused
to take a share in the management of local affairs; and
when they do come forward they are apt to find themselves
hopelessly handicapped in their efforts by the radical de-
fects of the system and the numerous adverse influences
prevailing around them. We see the spirit of sectionalism
dominating the councils of the city, and the system of gov-
ernment operating to encourage the men representing the
different localities in combining to “ log-roll” extravagant
measures into operation, for the gratification of their con-
stituencies and to the injury of the community as a
whole. This curse of sectionalism, so discouraging to pub-
lic spirit and giving evil character to our entire political
structure— from the councils of our nation down to the
wards and precincts in our cities—has of late been on the
increase. In our own city government of Boston it has
been extended, through legislative action, for the sake
of political results, and it forms a most undesirable feat-
ure of nearly all the municipal governments in Massachu-
setts. As to our Massachusetts cities in general, there
is too great a diversity of form. The varieties of city
charters existing have something of the appearance of ex-
perimental samples. Some cities have powers which other
cities have not. There is no ground for showing favorit-
ism to localities any more than to individuals, and the
plea of “peculiar local needs” in excuse for these differ-
ences is a specious one. ‘There is no reason why any one
city should have different rights or privileges from those
enjoyed by another. Our cities in Massachusetts have
now become so numerous that the legislature might do
well to provide for a special commission to study the ques-

716 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

tion of municipal government and report upon some uniform
system for the administration of all the cities in the Com-
monwealth, making extra provisions, however, for the
needs of a great city like Boston.

In thus setting forth the excellences of the Berlin sys-
tems, I would not, by any means, urge that it be copied
here ; but I would suggest that some of its admirable fun-
damental principles might be adopted to excellent advan-
tage. I know that when a foreign model is held up it is
customary to raise against it the cry of “un-American”
and to point to the necessity of preserving “the time-hon-
ored structure” of our existing forms. But surely the
securing of the most efficient method of local self-gov-
ernment cannot be “un-American,” and neither should a
system that promotes public spirit, economy and honesty,
and makes rings, jobs and bosses impossible.

As to the “sacredness” and “ time-honoredness” of ex-
isting forms it is sufficient to point out that our two-board
system is but a clumsy and distorted imitation of the Brit-
ish parliament, and that city governments have hardly ex-
isted long enough yet, in this country, for their forms to
become “time-honored.”

In the first place, I would say that the three-class sys-
tem of restricted suffrage prevailing in German munici-
palities, well as it works there, would be undesirable here,
even if it were practicable, as it is wholly out of conform-
ity with our American principles. We often hear some
of our men of large property urge that we ought to have
something of the kind here, but they are wasting their
breath, and it is useless even to think of it. If they would
but bend their energies towards achieving what is practi-
cable they would do well.

It would be desirable, however, by all means, to accept
the example of the German Municipal Assembly and, in-

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. V7

stead of abolishing the common council and adopting the
one-board idea which just now appears to be the popular
panacea for municipal ills, make the common council the
basis of the whole city government. Then incorporate
the splendid principle of permanency into our system, by
giving the members long terms and thus obtaining men of
experience, and provide that but a third of the members
shall retire at each election. In this way, while preserv-
ing the principle of sectional representation, we should be
rid of its baneful effects. Let the common council elect
the mayor and the aldermen for long terms and make the
heads of departments members of the board of aldermen.
Give the mayor unrestricted executive powers. It is wise
to have the executive officers elected by a representative
assembly instead of by direct popular vote, for experience
has taught us that, in the nature of things, masses of peo-
ple are incompetent to decide upon the real qualifications of
men for positions of responsibility. When elections hinge
upon persons instead of principles, personal considera-
tions are liable to prevail in deciding the issue ; measures
being simply used as expedients for placing certain per-
sons in power, instead of persons being advocated for the
sake of measures.

Berlin sets us a grand and highly important example in
another respect which it would be well to follow and, in-
deed, improve upon. It may be laid down as a broad
principle, that whatever men can do better by combined
action than by working as individuals, that thing they
should do, through the instrumentality of their govern-
mental organizations both for considerations of economy
and for the greater good resulting in broadening and im-
proving individual character through working in unison
with others for the good of all, than alone, simply, for the
good of self. This principle holds good both in national

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 6

78 BERLIN: A STUDY OF

and local affairs. It is to-day practised, both nationally
and locally, to a limited but steadily increasing extent.
Its scope should be extended, and the principle applied
wherever possible. Nothing but good can come of it.

We have seen how admirably Berlin manages its gas
and water works; how its street-railway system yields a
handsome revenue to the city and will ultimately become
wholly public property. Let us do likewise. Let us do
with our gas and electric-light works, for instance, what
we have always done with our water works. Boston could
well afford to purchase the property of the several gas
companies, even at the present high value of the stock,
and by supplying cheap fuel, as well as light, to the pub-
lic, at rates otherwise impossible on account of the divi-
dends that must be earned on large capitalization, she
would confer an inestimable benefit upon the people, as
well as obtain, if desired, a grand source of revenue ; an-
other consideration would be the business and the popula-
tion which would be attracted to the city threugh the
conveniences of the cheap fuel that may now be obtained
from gas.

Then let the city take the electric-light supply in hand.
The present companies with their conflicting interests
must ultimately unite, and then the public will have to pay
rates large enough to yield profits upon the great consoli-
dated and unnecessary capital. This is needless and it
will be folly to permit it. Numerous examples exist to
demonstrate how much cheaper a city can conduct such a
business for the public than can any private corporation,
Moreover, our streets and buildings are now disfigured
with wires and poles, and lives and property are continu-
ally in danger from the defective methods now prevailing.
With the city in charge, how speedily these things might
be straightened out! (See Appendix A.)

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN GERMANY. 719

It should also be borne in mind that the baneful influ-
ences of corporations, in the lobbies of the national capi-
tol, of state houses and of city halls alike, with their great
schemes to be promoted, constitute one of the most peril-
ous menaces to our American principle of free govern-
ment. Let the people take things in charge for them-
selves. Let them exercise these functions in their own
behalf, through the instrumentality of their governmental
organizations. Let us first take hold here, nearest at hand,
through such a municipal government as we need and can
have, if we will.

APPENDIX.

A. MUNICIPAL MONOPOLIES OF SERVICE.

I specify the matters of gas and electric light because they happen
to be the things nearest at hand and the question of the assumption of
the business by the city of Boston is now under discussion at the City
Hall. To do this will be wise and profitable; not to do it will be short-
sighted folly. How to do it best is something that the intelligent con-
sideration of our most practical men ought to show. But, inasmuch
as our new gas monopoly has reached its hands out into the suburbs
on all sides, and as the interests of the surrounding municipalities are
so thoroughly bound up with those of Boston in the matter of street
railways, highways, sewerage and other things, it seems as if these
subjects might be best and most economically handled by constituting
a metropolitan district—a greater Boston—for their administration in
the interests of the whole with an equitable apportionment of expen-
ditures and receipts among the various municipalities on account of
these purposes. .

Not only the experience of Berlin, but universally that of all other
cities in Germany and Great Britain, as well as this country, that
have established their own gas works, shows the profitableness and
economy of this policy. The same is true concerning electric light-
ing, as demonstrated by a considerable number of American cities
that have their own plants. Where cities depend upon private corpo-
rations for their electric lighting the average cost is three times that
in cities which run their own works. In eighteen cities of the latter
class, the average cost is 13.4 cents a night for each lamp; five of
these cities formerly paid anaverage of 45.1 cents to private companies ;
seventy-five cities, supplied by private corporations, pay an average of
42 cents. Lewiston, Me., formerly paid from 55 to 65 cents a night for
lights burning only till midnight; now, with its own plant, it burns its
lights all night at a cost of only 14 cents! The town of Danvers is
now before the Legislature seeking the right to supply its inhabitants
from the plant with which it now economically lights its thorough-
fares. Though this is opposed by private interests, it would be mani-
festly wasteful to allow another plant in private hands for the latter
purposes, encumbering the streets with its poles and wires, and there
is even better reason why a municipality should supply light than sup-

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APPENDIX. 81

ply water to its inhabitants, since for the purpose it does not need to
invade the territory of other municipalities, as is often the case in
obtaining a water supply. Therefore, if the Legislature is wise and
not acting in behalf of special interests instead of the public welfare
it is solemnly bound to serve, it will not only permit Danvers to do
this, but enact a general law enabling all municipalities to do the same.
In Grand Ledge, Mich., the municipality does commercial lighting
with its public plant, and thereby already gets its own street lights at
a cost of only 1.8 cents a night for each lamp.

Chicago now does electric lighting at a cost of 15 cents a lamp a night,
while Boston pays the exorbitant sum of 65 cents! Boston paid the
last year for its electric lights the sum of $151,413.05, and for its gas
lighting $245,337.80. With municipal works the electric-light expen-
diture ought to be reduced at least two-thirds, or to something like
$50,000, and that for gas correspondingly.

The great problem is how to reduce our municipal taxation. It is
not to reduce our expenditures, for our needs are increasing, and the
tendency of the day is to increase continually the functions of the mu-
nicipality—and a fortunate tendency itis. But it is possible, by act-
ing in the direction indicated, to obtain an ample revenue to meet
these expenditures, wonderfully improving the city and at the same
time materially to decrease taxation. That way is to charge every
private interest now or hereafter occupying public property a rental
equivalent to the full value of the service thereof. A magnificent rev-
enue could undoubtedly be obtained from these sources in which the
public rights have been recklessly, but let us hope, not irretrievably,
thrown away by both state and city. What would be thought of a
proposition to give the use of Faneuil Hall Market to its occupants
rent free, or to allow private corporations or individuals to put up
their buildings on city land without compensation? Suppose the Com-
monwealth had given away its Back Bay lands! Yet, that is precisely
what we have done with our streets. We have allowed private inter-
ests to occupy our thoroughfares wherever possible, on the surface,
in the air above or in the ground below, with railways, electric light
and power, telegraph and telephone wires, gas pipes, heating pipes,
conduits, and Heaven knows what else,—absolutely without compen-
sation, when just as easily as not the city might have obtained for the
privilege a splendid income in the shape of a large percentage of
the gross receipts of these corporations which are now enriched at
the expense of the public. Thereby taxation would be reduced, busi-
ness interests largely relieved from many burdens, and the general
welfare promoted.

If our public-spirited men would only take the matter in hand this
can easily be accomplished; let our business men, for instance, discuss

82 APPENDIX.

and advocate such measures in their trade clubs, their exchanges,
their chambers of commerce, and the pressure of public sentiment
thus developed would soon become overwhelming. And it would be
well to bear in mind these truthful words from that admirable book
of Professor Ely’s ‘‘Problems of To-day: ‘‘ Where public spirit is ina
low condition public authority is unable to perform its proper func-
tions, and they are with loss handed over to private individuals.”

B. THE BERLIN BUDGET.

The New York Evening Post of March 22, in an editorial comment-
ing upon the lecture and an interesting and instructive letter from a
Berlin correspondent which it had drawn out, pertinently remarked :
‘< How is all this done with so many theorists, and even college pro-
fessors, in the executive staffof the city? Simply because they conduct
the city’s affairs upon business principles.”

As the letter gives much valuable recent information, more in detail
than was possible within the limits of my lecture, it is printed here-
with:

Berlin, March 8, 1889.

‘¢Cyrus has tasted of this dish and wishes that you also might enjoy
it.” These pleasant words of the chivalrous and unfortunate hero of
the Anabasis came to my mind as I read the report of Mr. Baxter’s
most excellent lecture on our ‘‘ Model City”? in THE EVENING Post
some weeks ago. The Berlin Government is now discussing its annual
budget, many proposals of reform are debated in the daily press, and
it may not be without interest to your readers, at least to such as are
active in municipal reform, to learn the result and methods of our finan-
cial system in greater detail than it was his purpose to state it, and
with reference to more recent conditions; for the more the details of
the financial management of Berlin are studied, the more it seems a
model of what every city government might be and ought to be.

Death and taxes are said to be the two great certainties. Here at
least tax-dodging is nearly impossible, and the inevitable is accepted
the more cheerfully since all tax-payers are convinced that every penny
which they contribute will be used with scrupulous honesty and busi-
ness tact for the public good. It is a matter of justifiable pride to our
city government that each year shows an advance over the last in effi-
ciency and economy. The officials take the contributors into their
confidence, going over each item of the budget with almost painful ac-
curacy in a special report, accounting for each increase and decrease
in a detailed comparison with the preceding year. In the weekly is-
sues of the municipal paper, Das Gemeinde-DBlatt, all the expenses may
be traced, even to the number of pencils, of envelopes, and sheets of

APPENDIX. 83

paper used during the year, and every one may satisfy himself that a
wise watchfulness has left no loophole for speculation. Indeed, it may
be doubted if the small tax-payer gets as great a return from any other
payment that he makes as he does from his taxes to the city.

Before showing what we pay and whatis done with the money, itis
worth while to consider a moment what we get. We have the best
police system in Europe, order is maintained, crime is rare, unpun-
ished crime an exception. The complete control which the police has
over the movements of the population leads many to ‘“‘leave the country
for their country’s good,” and honest men profit by their absence. if,
as is promised us, we have a general strike this spring, there will be
no such scenes as have been reported during the car-strikes in Brook-
lyn or even in New York. There is no street in Berlin that the police
cannot control, and the right to work on his own terms will be denied
to no one by any body of men with impunity. Order is the first law of
cities as well as of heaven, but even in other ways, in courtesy and in
bearing, our police need not fear comparison even with “‘the finest.”
Cleanliness is next to godliness. Our city furnishes water at a less
rate than is usual in America, and the supply is plentiful, the average
used being sixty-four litres per head and day. Gas costs us about $1.12
a thousand feet, or 16 pfennige a cubic metre; but it is honest gas and
honest measure, and for mechanical purposes it is furnished a sixth
cheaper. The streets of Berlin are well lighted, scrupulously clean
even in this trying winter, and well paved. Already one-ninth of our
street surface is covered with asphalt, and a third of the remainder
with hewn stone blocks laid on cement and joints pointed with tar.
The wooden pavement finds small favor here. The elevated road and
horse-cars furnish Berlin with better transit facilities than has any
other continental city. The parks and squares are many and well kept;
many places are set apart for the children and kept from disturbing el-
ements, while the child as he grows older finds ready for him model
schools and museums and libraries, which, if they cannot rival the his-
toric treasures of earlier collections, are most valuable for training and
instruction.

This is what the tax-payer gets; now let him count the cost. The
City Budget for 1888-1889 reckoned the income and expense for the
year at sixty-two million marks. We have finished the year with two
million surplus, and hope to reduce taxation during the coming year.
Of the sixty-two millions the people paid in direct taxes about thirty-
five. Two systems of taxation are used side by side, and each helps
to correct the inequalities of the other. These are the income-tax,
proportioned to a man’s ability to pay, and the rent-tax, an unvarying
percentage of the rental value, collected on the theory that the streets,
the parks, and city works are for the use of all in nearly equal degrees,

84 APPENDIX.

so that, as each renter of an apartment pays not only for the rooms
occupied, but also for the common stairways and halls in proportion
to his rent, he should pay for the benefits given him by the city in the
same proportion. This rent-tax has been the subject of very violent
attack by Socialists, whether democrats or statesmen. Bismarck said
in 1881 that it was ‘‘ the most oppressive tax, growing in burden as it
decreased in amount, in fact, one of the worst that could be invented,”
and when a year or more ago the city proposed to the Government to
make certain exemptions from the tax, the petition was refused on the
ground that it should be discarded altogether. This, however, was
rejected last month by the decisive vote of eighty-four to twenty, for
our Berlin Burgomaster does not agree with von Helldorf, who says
of his party, the National Liberals: ‘‘ We must go with the Chancel-
or though we do get a kick now and then.”

The present law taxes all dwellings 6% per cent. of the rental value.
A proposition is under consideration to reduce the tax to 34 per
cent. on rents below 300 marks and to 5 per cent. on rents below 600.
It has very small prospect of success, and would be merely a gift to
the present house-owners who bought and built in full knowledge of
the law. Rooms used solely for business purposes, the dwellings of
ambassadors, clergymen, high officials and teachers are exempt. The
tax was remitted also out of charity during the year on over 21,000
lodgings with an average rental of 141 marks. The tax yielded for the
past year about 13,000,000 marks.

The rent-tax is not the only charge on real estate, though it is the
only one that is paid by the occupant. The owner pays a tax of one-
third the amount of the rent-tax, or 2 2-9 per cent of the rental value.
The amount realized is about 4,400,000 marks, so that the whole tax
on real property is somewhat over 17,500,000 marks. The owner has
also to pay small sums for the use of water and sewers, but this does
not appear in the Budget.

To recover these taxes the owner looks to the rental, but yet rates
remain at a very reasonable figure. Some details may be not without
interest, and will invite comparisons, for Berlin is but little smaller
than New York, and is growing nearly as rapidly. There were in the
city on April 1, 1888, 344,941 dwellings leased, subject to tax, at an
average rental of 640 marks annually. City statistics show that about
two-thirds of these (222,915) rented at from 50 to 400 marks, or for
less than $100 a year; two-ninths (76,827) were valued at between 401
and 1,000 marks; some 19,000 more were rated between 1,001 and 1,590
marks, and 10,000 others below 2,080 marks: so that more than nine-
teen-twentieths of the rents paid were less than $500. Eleven thou-
sand fell between this sum and $1,000, while in the whole city only
5,121 dwellings had a rental value of more than this, and of these but

APPENDIX. 85

1,182 were rated at over $2,500. I will leave it to the reader to draw
his own comparisons.

The other great source of revenue is the income tax, which produces
about fourteen millions. As faras the city is concerned, incomes up to
six hundred marks are free; from thence to three thousand marks the
“class tax” rises in a progressive scale from nine to seventy-two marks
annually. The state collects an equal tax, but includes the incomes be-
low six hundred marks in two classes, which pay respectively three and
six marks annually; while, therefore, the city gets from this source
less than three millions, the State collects nearly four millions and a
half. Incomes above three thousand marks are taxed 3 per cent by
the State and equally by the city. Of such there were in Berlin, last
April, 36,464. These were divided into classes ascending by steps of
six hundred marks to six thousand marks, and by steps of twelve hun-
dred marks, and so on, the largest income assessed Herr Bleichréder’s
being 2,460,000 marks.

As with rents, here it is interesting also to observe the distribution
of incomes. Under one or the other of these income-taxes are ranged
477,611 persons; three-fifths are exempt from the city tax, since they
earn less than 600 marks. More than half the remainder have incomes
below 3,000 marks. Of the 36,464 who pay income-tax at 3 per cent,
one-third (12,291) pay on incomes under 4,200; a second third (12,512)
rank between 4,200 and 7,200; about two-ninths (8,095) have incomes
between this figure and 14,400; less than a tenth (8,302) have between
this sum and 60,000. Above this amount there are but 380 incomes in
Berlin; 34 of these are above 300,000 marks, representing that number
of millionaires according to American reckoning. One other tax, the
dog-tax, is paid directly by the people. This is rather a license than
a tax, however. It produces about 350,000 marks.

An active discussion is now in progress on the method of estimating
the income to be assessed. The present system is largely a rule of
thumb. It seems usual to estimate the income of the middle-class at
about three times the house-rent, increasing the ratio as the rent rises.
This is evidently a tax rather on outgo than on income, and it is gen-
erally recognized that most incomes are underestimated. It is now
proposed, with every prospect of success, to require each person to
make a sworn declaration of his income. This would distribute the
burdens more justly, and though many oppose it, it could be enforced
if it were undertaken. Foreign residents especially seldom are taxed
for a third of their income, often for not more than half their actual ex-
penses. Iwill giveasingleinstance. There is now in Berlina Boston
gentleman who had an unfortunate prejudice against lying to the asses-
sors, and paid in his native city about three hundred dollars in taxes
annually. On the identical property he pays here as a permanent res-

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 6*

86 APPENDIX.

ident thirteen dollars rent tax and forty-five dollars income tax, ‘ and
he never told a lie.” If fully assessed by city and state, his tax would
be but one hundred and three dollars annually. Indeed, I do not know
of any place in America where the tax-dodger is so well off materially,
to say nothing of the sense of moral rectitude which comes from an
honest though inexpensive discharge of one’s civic duties.

But to return to the Budget. Direct taxation produced last year
about thirty-five million marks. The sources of the remainder of the
city’s income shall be indicated more briefly. The gas-works paid the
interest on their cost, lighted the city without expense, and had a sur-
plus of four and a half millions. To this the water-works added sev-
enteen hundred thousand, with no charge to the city, and the public
markets contributed three hundred thousaud. There was, however,
a deficit in the sewerage of two and a half millions, so that the city
works netted only about four millions. Licenses, rents, and sales fur-
nished seven and a half millions, the largest item being the tax of two
to seven per cent on the gross receipts of all horse-car lines, which
produced more than a million marks. Fines and fees furnished a mil-
lion, school rates two millions, the work-houses and insane asylums
thirteen hundred thousand, the malt tax half a million, and minor
sources of revenue three millions. About nine millions was raised by
the issue of three and a half per cent bonds for permanent improve-
ments.

This brings me to the debt of Berlin which reached last April the
total of 182,578,000 marks. Of this, 149,874,000 marks represent the
cost of the city works, gas, water, sewers, abattoirs, and markets,
which pay interest and sinking-fund from their receipts and leave a
handsome balance to the city. There remains 32,704,000 marks, call-
ing for an annual charge for interest and sinking fund of less than
1,660,000 marks, or about 25 cents per capita. This is less than half
the annual surplus from the city works. Yet even this exaggerates
the real debt, for the city had an invested surplus of 10,000,000 marks,
to which it has added 2,000,000 during the past year.

It may be mentioned that the city collects also the rates for the
support of the State and Roman Catholic churches from their mem-
bers and manages a system of mutual insurance against fire assessing
the loss annually. For the year ending October, 1887, there were
2,500,000,000 insured at an annual cost of one-twentieth of one per cent.

It has been shown how the city raised last year 62,000,000 marks.
To note the use that was made of it may be of advantage. For col-
lecting the direct taxes 260,000 marks were appropriated—about eight-
tenths of one per cent.—and so skilfully was payment enforced that
the loss, except by death or removal, is hardly appreciable, while the
collections for the preceding year exceeded the estimates by 1,640,000

APPENDIX. 87

marks. Other statistical and clerical work absorbed 150,000 marks.
The city government, including the Fire Department, cost 5,500,000
marks, the police 3,000,000 the streets 2,250,000, the parks 750,000, the
city works 2,500,000 marks. These were the necessary expenses of
administration; besides this, the city gave 11,000,000 to education,
3,000,000 to the hospitals, more than 6,500,000 to the poor, and had
15,000,000 for the important extensions of the sewerage and the large
public buildings now in hand.

That the picture of the direct burdens which German taxpayers en-
dure, and from which they are supposed to suffer, may be complete,
let me add that in addition to the city taxes, the state exacts only a3
per cent income tax, or the reduced tax on incomes below 3,000 marks,
a trade-license tax, which yields in this city 2,500,000, and a tax on im-
proved real estate of about 5,250,000 marks annually. Let it be re-
membered that with these taxes and a moderate tariff Germany sup-
ports the strongest army in the world, at about the cost to the United
States of her weak army and great herd of pensioners, and it will be
seen that in managing a state or a city great results can be accom-
plished by honesty and economy, with means that in America are
often thrown away.

GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL
NOTES; No, aL.

SoDALITE.

BY JOHN H. SEARS.

Tue discovery of this rare silicate was first brought
into notice in Essex county by Gilbert L. Streeter, Esq.,
in October, 1855. The locality of the discovery as de-
scribed is on the right hand side of the road leading along
Collins Cove from the Salem Alms House to Hospital
Point. This mineral, when first described, was called can-
cranite. Later it was analyzed by Mr. David M. Balch
and proved to be sodalite.

It was found in veins of syenite, which is composed of
plagioclase, feldspar, hornblende, elieolite, biotite mica
and magnetite iron, with accessory minerals of zircon, ap-
atite, quartz, albite, augite and small crystals of ortho-
clase. This sodalite is of a rare occurrence, and seems
to be in pockets in narrow veins. From my own obser-
vations, I have found it only where these narrow veins,
three or four inches wide, are cutting through porphyritic
diabase. In these pockets it is quite plentiful, coloring
the rock in blotches of pink and blue.

In April, 1862, Messrs. D. M. Balch and C. H. Higbee
blasted in a vein of the elieolite zircon syenite that was
discovered ten rods N. W. of the old locality, when spec-
imens of the sodalite and elieolite were obtained. These

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GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL NOTES. 89

were analyzed by Mr. Balch and the results published in
the Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Vol. Iv, pp. 3 to 6.

During the past three years, I have given much time
to the study of these syenites, and have collected speci-
mens from Fluent’s Point, Peach’s Point and Naugus Head
on the Marblehead shore, Salem Neck, Winter Island,
Beverly Cove, Hospital Point, Curtis’ Point near Mingo
beach, West Beach; West Manchester, Kast Wenham to
Essex and on Coney Island and Coney Island ledges,
Haste ledge, Great Misery, Chubb’s Island, the Ram Isl-
ands, House Island and also at Manchester High Rock,
where it forms dykes from a few inches to several feet in
width. The Ram Islands are principally albite-feldspar
granite, with the syenite cutting the islands on the south-
west, as dyke masses. The trend of the whole syenite
rock mass is N. 60°, E. to S. W., dip variable. I have
prepared twelve microscopic sections, which I have studied
in detail with a petrological microscope at the Lithological
laboratory of Harvard University, Prof. J. Elliott Wolffe,
instructor. One very interesting form of which I have four
sections, two from Salem Neck east of Fort Lee, and the
others from Beverly, contains a form called micro-peth-
ite. It is a microscopic intergrowth of albite and ortho-
clase, the orthoclase twinning and the albite intergrowing
directly across the twinning planes, giving a beautiful play
of colors under polarized light.

I have over one hundred specimens of sodalite, that I
have collected on Salem Neck east of Fort Lee and on
some of the islands in the harbor which is equivalent to
saying that it is not a rare mineral in Salem. Several
very interesting forms, that are quite unknown, are still
to be studied in order to clear up the relationship which
these syenites bear to the granites and diorites through
which they cut. One peculiar form has been called leop-

90 GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL NOTES.

ardite and napoleonite. These names would bring them
into the diorite group, but their composition proves them
to be forms of the syenite, which is as distinct from the
diorite as the diorite is from the granite. On the Beverly
shore the syenite is cut in various directions by recent
dykes of feldsite and diabase, and at Hospital Point, Bev-
erly, on the east side, there is a peculiar form of dyke
called a laccolite, one of which has been described by
Mr. G. K. Gilbert. It was discovered in the Henry moun-
tains in southern Utah and consists of large bosses of lava,
which have risen from beneath, but, instead of finding their
way to the surface, have spread out laterally and pushed
up the overlaying strata, giving it a somewhat dome-
shaped appearance.

The main rock-mass of Salem Neck is diorite, com-
posed of oligoclase, feldspar and hornblende. The acces-
sory minerals as seen by the microscope are calcite, biotite,
apatite, orthoclase, grains of quartz, magnetite iron, lim-
onite, zircon crystals and chlorite. Most all of these are
alteration products of the hornblende. This diorite as-
sumes various forms in different places even in the same
strike and dip, the strike being N. E. to S. W., and the
dip 60° N. W. In places on Salem Neck, it is composed
of large patches of hornblende and oligoclase feldspar with
magnetite iron. In other places it is largely hornblende
and again oligoclase. Some of it is very finely and evenly
mixed and again it is seen strongly porphyritic, with large
erystals of the oligoclase feldspar, and in some sections
it becomes quartz diorite, but this I think is due to the
eranite, with which it is associated, as I have only ob-
served it in places where the hornblendic granite was
closely joined to the diorite.

It has been stated that the sodalite on Salem Neck was
found in drift-boulders. This is clearly proved to be in-

GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL NOTES. 91

correct ; still it might have been found in beulders, which
are produced by chemicals and atmospheric disintegration
as oxydatien of iron, solution of the salts, alteration of
the hornblende, or hydration of the feldspar. Everywhere
on the Neck this process may be observed. Even whole
ledges of syenite and diorite, with diabase dykes cutting
through them, are seen reduced to decayed rock. Change
of temperature from hot to cold causes expansion and con-
traction. This cracks the rocks, thus letting in rain-water,
charged with carbonic acid, which causes disintegration
and a gradual rounding of the reck-masses. The granite
boulders of Peabody are actually standing upen other boul-
ders of the same kind of granite, which are covered by
the rotted granite, which forms the soil over and around
them. This is conclusive proof that their origin is from
disintegration in situ and not from glacial deposits from
a distance, also that the so-called glaciated surfaces under
them are merely fragments of slickensides. A visit to any
of the granite quarries either in Peabody or Rockport will
prove the presence of these slickensides at each joint plane
at various depths from one to sixty feet. Some of the
deepest and most extensive quarries in Peabody are in mas-
sive boulders which show in outline the disintegration of
the joint planes. In the comparison of joint structures
between the Peabody and Rockport quarries we may form
some idea of the amount of erosion that has taken place
at Peabody and vicinity. At Rockport the upper joints are
from three inches to one foot thick and at sixty feet deep
in the quarries they are from fifteen to twenty feet thick ;
while in the Peabody quarries the upper Joints are from
twelve to fifteen feet thick and the second joint is often
twenty-five feet thick. Now if this granite is part of one
continuous sheet across Peabody to Rockport the amount
of erosion at Peabody must be from sixty to seventy feet,

92 GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL NOTES.

and where one of these joint structures twenty-five feet
thick has disintegrated and eroded on its outside leaving
a nucleus we may expect to find boulders like Ship Rock
and others of similar size in its neighborhood. These
eroded boulders of granite at Peabody, Beverly, Man-
chester, Gloucester and Rockport form the entire basis of
the so-called “ Frontal moraine theory ” of which, after a
careful examination of the region, I find not the slightest
evidence ; indeed, there are no erratic boulders in the whole
region. Those which have been considered as such are
clearly fragments of dyke masses which cut the granite.
Several forms of coarse diorite, syenite, feldsite and gab-
bros cut these granites in various directions, and nearly
all of them have become in part somewhat schistose and
stratified by alteration making a great variety of forms.
Now what is more natural than that we should find frag-
ments formed from these dyke rocks mixed with the gran-
ite boulders of the region in which they are found in sdtu.

In the early spring I pointed out several examples of
these disintegrated ledges of granite syenite and diabase
to Mr. John L. Gardner, 2nd, of Boston, and also the Lac-
colite dykes at Beverly. These he kindly photographed for
me and as they illustrate my work on this disintegration
in situ they are extremely valuable additions to the geol-
ogy of Essex County.

The so-called syenite of Moulton’s point, South Salem,
is a true granite, composed of quartz, orthoclase, feldspar
and glaucophane. ‘This glaucophane is the blue horn-
blende, considered as rare by Professor Rosenbusch, de-
scribed and analyzed by Professor Bodewig from specimens
collected on the island of Syra and the Zermatt. Accessory
minerals are calcite, apatite, biotite mica, magnetite iron
and an abundance of zircon crystals. I would suggest for
this form of granite the distinctive name of zirconiferous
glaucophane granite.

GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL NOTES. 93

Appended is a list of new and rare minerals found in
Essex County.

Xanthosiderite from Rockport, analyzed at Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology.

Turgite from Beverly Farms, analyzed at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.

Wad Bog Manganese from Peabody and Danvers, ana-
lyzed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Glassy crystals of albite, Gloucester, analyzed by Mr.
Whittle, Cambridge.

Ankerite from Gloucester.

Pierosmine, Piorolite, Baltimoreite from Newbury.

Crystal of quartz, a pseudomorph of fluorite, Rockport.

Molybdenite from Gloucester.

Galenite from Rockport.

Delessite from Bradford.

Arkose from Saugus.

Arsenophyorite from Salisbury Point.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI ‘a

ON THE AGE OF THE ANDEAN MEDAL.

(WITH PLATE.)

BY SAMUEL GARMAN.

Tur reason for the existence of the present communi--

cation is to be found in a letter from the distinguished
ethnologist, Dr. M. Uhle, of the Koniglich Museum fiir Vol-
kerkunde at Berlin, Prussia. His letter is a consequence
of the article “An Andean Medal” published by the Essex
Institute in Vol. xx, p. 57, of its Bulletin. Lacking time
and opportunity to make proper study of the matter in its
various bearings, that article was limited to merely put-
ting the medal on record by means of a description and
sketch, and necessarily the more important work of com-
paring and identifying was left to investigators who might
find the subject more directly in their own lines of study.
A considerable portion of what was thus neglected has
been admirably supplied by Dr. Uhle, one entitled by at-
tainments and position to speak with authority. The Doc-
tor’s letter was accompanied by several tracings ef the
implements to which he makes reference and of these an
approximate idea is given in the pen-and-ink sketches, 1,
9 and 3, on the plate. As the designs were traced with a
pencil, by rubbing it over the paper placed against the
ornamentation, a very exact copy of the original will not
be expected in ink. Such as it is, however, it is sufli-
ciently close to illustrate the points made in the note, be-
sides giving a tolerable representation of the styles and
workmanship of the period to which they belong.
(95)

96 ON THE AGE OF

By comparison of the sculptures on the pin, or needle,
fig. 1, with those on the medal it will be seen that the fish-
scale curves, bow-like ornaments, on the two are alike
and, so far as may be determined from the tracings, made
in the same manner by means of similar instruments. Hach
excavation has the same remotely sub-crescentic outline,
apparently made by a tool, having a point formed by the
meeting of three planes, not held perfectly erect, laterally,
but inclined toward the side of the groove having the long-
est slope. One side of the furrow, the nearer to the inner
edge, has a steeper descent than the other. Ina trans-
verse section of one of these grooves the side nearer the
inner edge approaches a vertical while the other side is
indicated by a much longer and less abrupt incline. It
is evident the execution in each case is what might be
expected from workmen using similar tools and methods
and, in connection with the designs, it points toward a
fashion prevalent ata particular period. The subjoined
letter throws light on the probable time when it prevailed.

In my description of the medal the outlines of the cen-
tral portion were said to make a flower-like figure. It was
not intended by this to say that it had been designed to
represent a flower. The resemblance may be wholly ac-
cidental, resulting from the employment of the semi-cir-
cular curves and the straight lines in producing one of the
many and varied forms of the “sun symbol,” or “sun cross.”
Some of the forms taken on by these latter are shown in
figs. 4, 5 and 6 of the plate, copied from articles in the
January and February, 1889, numbers of the Century
Magazine, by Mr. Charles de Kay on Pagan Ireland.
Fig. 4 is from the upper stone of a quern, hand mill;
the dotted line marks the cracks and the x the holes through
the stone. It is to be noted that there are fourteen
small spaces outlined in a circle near the centre. The

THE ANDEAN MEDAL. 97

number is duplicated in the Andean Medal. Whether
this betokens more than a cvincidence is a question for
those better versed in interpretations of these symbols.
In fig. 5, from a gravestone, the triangular enclosures are
sunken below the balance of the face, which from their
borders, within the circle, is rounded up in relief. Fig. 6,
is said by Mr. de Kay to have been from a “hammered
gold spangle with pagan sun cross.”

The occurrence of these sun symbols mixed in with
those of the church, on gravestones and crosses, and in
places of worship in Ireland, is suggestive of a possible
influence, through the emissaries of the church, upon the
art fashion in Peru at the time of the maker of the medal,
or earlier. The idea is only a suggestion but so far as it
has any weight it favors the opinion of Dr. Uhle that the
medal is of later date than the advent of Columbus or Pi-
zarro. As in Ireland, so in South America, pagan prac-
tices were woven in with those of the church, or at any
rate were indulged in long after the attempt at suppres-
sion. According to the Doctor, the medal derives additional
nterest from the fact that the circumstances of its discov-
ery, in connection with the date of its origin, indicate the
persistence of the custom ef making mummies, and of put-
ting metal in their mouths, long after the commencement
of the bloody struggle for the displacement of the symbols
of sun-worship in the “land of the sun,” by those of
Christianity. The following is quoted from the letter:

“It is true that round pieces of metal have been inserted
between the lips of mummies by the ancient Peruvians.
M. Squier has described some, and I know others of gold
of round form with a round hole near the border. You
think that the medal may prove of some account in re-
searches concerning the metal workers of the lands of the
Incas.” But there can be no doubt about that. The date

98 ON THE AGE OF THE ANDEAN MEDAL.

of the medal, however, is later than that of Pizarro and
Columbus, because there are to be seen the ornaments
characteristic of the subsequent period, commencing with
the advent of the Spaniards. The ancient Peruvians had
no flower-like ornaments of the form visible on the An-
dean medal. This form is characteristic of the work of the
Spaniards in America, in Peru, in the eastern part of South
America, etc., and of those of the aborigines whose works
were influenced by the instruction and direction of the
Spaniards. Compare the calabashes of the Rio Amazonas,
of Argentinia, of Peru, and elsewhere. I know no ancient
work of Peruvians, in silver or in any other materials, on
which are to be found the bow-like ornaments so numer-
ous on the medal. But I do find the same in a modern
silver lamp of the high plateau of Bolivia, worked per-
haps in Sicasica, on a modern trumpet from Peru, of
wood, with silver rings and the inscription “Soy de me
doefio de Simon Ynostrosa de 1819”, on vases of clay fab-
ricated during the last centuries in Ecuador, on the mod-
ern silver works of the Araucanians, and on a fine silver
needle from Peru originating in the times following the
conquest. I send you sketches of the silver needle from
Peru (1) of the ornamentation of Araucanian silver works
(2) and of the ornaments on the modern trumpet (3).
I hope that you incline toward my opinion, that the “An-
dean medal,” though old, is not older than the conquest
by the Spaniards, and that it originated in culture of a
European character, European ornamental art, etc., in-
troduced by them. However that may be, the medal is
interesting in every way; it shows that the custom of
mummifying the dead and also the custom of inserting
pieces of metal between the lips may have been contin-
ued long after the conquest, against the wishes of the
representatives of the church.”

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BULLETIN

2 SS SS ey Ee Oe ae ae

Vor. 21. Satem: Oct., Nov., Drec., 1889. Nos. 10-11-12.

AnnuaL Meetine, May 20, 1889.

The annual meeting was held this evening at 7.30
o’clock, the President in the chair. Records of the last
annual meeting read and approved.

The reports of the Secretary, Librarian, Curators and
Committees were read and accepted.

The reading of the report of the Treasurer was post-
poned to an adjournment of this meeting, on account of
the absence of the Treasurer, Mr. Phippen, being on a
journey for his health.

On motion of Mr. Whipple

Voted that when this meeting adjourns, it will be at the
call of the Secretary.

The President called attention to photographs of two
old oil paintings recently presented to the Institute by
Mr. Waldo Higginson of Boston, whose letter explanatory
of the same was read.

The first represents a scene in Madras about 1694, with
portraits of Governor Nathaniel Higginson and wife, and
Stephen Aynsworth who afterwards married Sarah Hig-
ginson, their daughter, born Dec. 2, 1697.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 10* (147)

148 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

The second represents a scene in England about 1720,
with portraits of Stephen Aynsworth and wife and her
sister Deborah Higginson, born 1700.

Nathaniel Higginson was son of Rev. John Higginson
of the First church in Salem, 1660-1708. He was born
at Guilford, Conn., Oct. 11, 1652, a graduate of Harvard
in 1670; went to England in 1674, and in 1683 was in the
company’s service at Fort St. George in the Kast Indies,
was a member and secretary of the council and afterwards
governor of the factory at the fort. He married Eliza-
beth, daughter of John Richards in May, 1692, returned
to England in 1700 and established himself as a merchant
in London, where he died in 1708.?

[At the adjourned meeting held on Monday, June 17,
1889, the Report of the Treasurer was read and accepted. ]

The committee on nominations reported the following
list of officers which was duly elected.

PRESIDENT.
HENRY WHEATLAND.

VICH-PRESIDENTS.

ABNER C. GOODELL, JR., DANIEL B. UAGar,
FREDERICK W. PUTNAM, RoBeERT S. RaANTOUL.
SECRETARY. TREASURER.
Henry M. Brooks. GEORGE D. PHIPPEN.
AUDITOR. LIBRARIAN.
RICHARD C. MANNING. CHARLES S. OSGOOD.
COUNCIL.
WitiiM H. Gove, S. ENDICOTT PEABODY,
Tuomas F. Hunt, Davip PINGREE,
DAvip M. LITTLE, EpMUND B. WILLSON,
WILLIAM MACK, GEORGE M. WHIPPLE,
Epwarkp S. MORSE, ALDEN P. WHITE.

1See Hist. Coll. Essex Institute, vol. v, page 35; Higginson’s letters in Mass.
Hist. Soc. Coll., vol. vii, 3d series, page 196; N. E. Hist. Gen. Reg., vol. 1, page 34.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 149

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

compiled from the several reports read at the meeting and
remarks of the members in relation thereto, presents the
work of the Institute in the various departments since the
Jast annual meeting.

Meetines. Regular meetings occur on the first and third
Monday evenings of each month; adjourned and _ special
meetings have been occasionally held. At these the fol-
lowing communications were received and lectures deliv-
ered.

William P. Andrews, “A talk with Goethe about
Faust.”

S. M. Allis of Malden, * Arizona and its Mines.”

Sylvester Baxter of Boston, “Berlin: a Study of Munic-
ipal Government in Germany.”!

Henry P. Bowditch of Boston, “Composite Photog-
raphy.”

Benjamin W. Crowninshield of Boston, “ An Account
of the yacht ‘ Cleopatra’s Barge of Salem.’”?

Hdward Bangs Drew of Chelsea, “ Chinese Customs
and Home Life.”

Wiliam Ralph Hmerson of Concord, and Loss Tur-
ner of Salem, “ Art and Architecture as applied to New
England Houses.”

G. T. Flanders of New Bedford, “On the Moorish
Dominion in Spain.”

Samuel Garman of Cambridge, “On the age of the An-
dean Medal :” “The Batrachia of Kalm’s ‘En Resa til Norra
America ;” “ Reptiles and Batrachians from the Caymans
and from the Bahamas ;” ‘On an Eel from the Marshall
Islands.”

1See Bulletin, Vol. XXI, p. 53. 2See Hist. Coll., Vol. XXv, p. 81.
8 See Bulletin, Vol. Xx, pp. 57, 90, 101, 114.

150 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Ezra D. Hines of Danvers, “On Folly Hill.”

Cecil Hampden Cutts Howard of Brooklyn, N. Y.,
“Materials for a Genealogy of the Sparhawk Family in New
England.”?

Charles R. Keyes of Burlington, Iowa, “ An Annotated
Catalogue of the Mollusca of Iowa.”

J. S. Kingsley of Lincoln, Nebraska, “ The Develop-
ment of Crangon vulgaris.” ‘Third paper.’

John T. Moulton of Lynn, “ Inscriptions from the old
Burying Ground at Saugus Centre.”

Robert S. Rantoul, “ Governor Endecott Estate ;” ed-
ited “ The part taken by Essex County in the organization
and settlement of the Northwest Territory ;’° “Two Naval
Songs.”

John H. Sears, “ Geological and Mineralogical Notes :
No 1, Sodalite.”®

Hben F. Stone of Newburyport, on “ Characteristics
of Rufus Choate, Caleb Cushing and Robert Rantoul, jr.”
A portion of the address had been delivered before the
Essex Bar at the opening of the New Court rooms.

Frederick C. Test of Bloomington, Ind., “ New Phos-
phorescent Organs in Porichthys.””

Alden P. White of Danvers, “On the Evolution of a
County.”

Liprary :—The additions to the Library for the year
(May, 1888, to May, 1889) have been as follows :

By Donation.

Folios, A ; . a : : : ; P 5 : ‘ ‘ 56
Quartos, . : ; A A : ; A ; : A : ; ; 146
Octavos, . : : F s . : . : ; P : : : 1,671
Twelvemos, . : ; : : - . , 2 ; : ‘ 379

1See Hist. Coll., Vol. XXv, pp. 30, 119. 2See Bulletin, Vol. XxX, p. 61.

3 See Bulletin, Vol. XXI, p.1. 4See Hist. Coll., Vol. xxv, p. 60.

5 See Hist. Coll., Vol. XXv, p. 137. 5 See Hist. Coll., Vol. XXv, p. 165.

7 See Bulletin, Vol. Xx, p. 84. 8 See Bulletin, Vol. XXI, p. 88.

9 See Hist. Coll., Vol. X XVI, p. 1. 10 See Bulletin, Vol. XX, p. 43.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YERAR. 154

Sixteenmos, . A . ‘ : 5 r : ¥ 5 2 5 é 142
Twenty-fourmos, . ‘ é - - : ¢ - : “ 53
Total of bound volumes, ; 3 : ‘ , 3 : A 7 : 2,447
Pamphlets and serials, . . 3 5 “ - “ - 3 : 9,116
Total of donations, : C : A : > 3 : F 2 is 11,563
By Exchange.
Folios, : > P 5 ;: 3 = - - A 3 A : 4
Quartos, . 4 4 4 - 5 A ‘ 5 . : A ‘ . 6
Octavos, . C ° s A a : : ; c ° 3 5 i 95
Twelvemos, . . : - e - “4 4 : : - 2 : 22
Twenty-fourmos, . 5 : c 3 . A : “ : - 1
Total of bound volumes, A : ‘ - 3 ‘ : - 3 128
Pamphlets and serials, . 7 5 z é ‘ ; 3 : : 2,418
Total of exchanges, - ‘ 5 : “ ~ c - ; é 2,546
By Purchase.
Quartos, : 5 “ “ : 5 4 : 5
Octavos, . “ ° : : - - . - 5 2 - - 57
Duodecimos, . 5 : - b : 3 - 6 5 ; : 3 1
Total of bound volumes, : 3 ; : : 6 : é ‘ 63
Pamphlets and serials, . 7 : 5 - : . A 5 . : 627
Total of purchases, ° 7 : ; é ; : ; 5 4 5 690
Total of donations, “ 5 < 5 4 - 5 - : : - 11,563
Total of exchanges, A : : 4 : . 5 5 2 5 2,546
Total of purchases, j 3 5 C ; : c A A - 690
Total of additions, . 5 : A : : A 5 : ; : é 14,799

Of the total number of pamphlets and serials, 3,608
were pamphlets and 8,553 were serials.

The donations to the Library for the year have been
received from one hundred and eighty individuals and
sixty-six societies and governmental departments. The
exchanges from seven individuals and one hundred and
seventy-six societies and incorporated institutions, of
which eighty-six are foreign; also from editors and pub-
lishers. Among the donations to the Library during the
past year, were three hundred and fifty-three bound vol-
umes and two hundred and twelve pamphlets the bequest
of the late Dr. J. A. Emmerton; five hundred and forty-
eight volumes, mostly U. S. public documents from Hon.
Geo. B. Loring and a large collection of horticultural and
other newspapers from Charles H. Hovey of Cambridge.

152 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

We are pleased to be able to state that an increased in-
terest has been manifested during the past year in the
Library. The valuable and oftentimes rare works of refer-
ence which it contains have been oftener consulted, ow-
ing in a large measure, no doubt, to the better opportunity
for so doing, which our increased facilities offer.

The Institute regards with unalloyed satisfaction the
opening of a Free Public Library in Salem. The two in-
stitutions should supplement each other and thus each will
be better able to serve the public, because of the existence
of the other. The Institute will be able to pursue its
special line of work without being called upon to cater
to the popular demand for current literature ; and the Pub-
lic Library will not be obliged to spend large sums to du-
plicate works of reference in certain lines, which are
always accessible at the Institute. A complete card cata-
logue has been made of the Art Library both by title and
author, and a beginning has been made in preparing such
a catalogue for the China Library. It is hoped that a
complete catalogue of each room may in this way be made
as the basis of a general and complete catalogue of the
whole library.

Four assistants are now employed in the work of the
Library. It is to be regretted that the efficient and capa-
ble assistant librarian, Miss Roberts, has been able, owing
to ill health, to give but a small portion of her time to the
Library, and this has somewhat delayed our progress in
the matter of forwarding the cataloguing. We hope, dur-
ing the coming year to exhibit more satisfactory results,
in this respect.

The department of sociology still remains in Plummer
Hall, as does also the larger part of the collection of pam-
phlets and most of the newspapers, except those of Essex
County. This department has been largely increased dur-
ing the past year.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. Loa

Another year’s experience has shown how great a benefit
the Institute has derived from its removal to new quarters.
Not only is the institution placed on a stronger and more
stable basis by possessing a location of its own, but the
large, pleasant and airy rooms attract to the library, visi-
tors and students to whom the former contracted and
limited space offered but little opportunity for study or re-
search. |

Cuas. S. Oscoon, Librarian.

Donations or exchanges have been received from the
following sources :—

Vols. Pam.
Abbot, Henry L., U. S. Army, ; ‘ : F 1
Adelaide, Royal Society of South diverteaties A : 1
Albany (N. Y.) Medical College, ’ ; ‘ ; i
Albany, New York State Library, ‘ 4 8
Albany, New York State Museum of Natanal Ehintaiye ; ] ]
Almy, James F., $ ‘ ; ; : ol
Alnwick, Eng., Borwickehive Watuvabees Field Club, ]
Altenburg, Naturforschende Gesellschaft des Osterlandes, ]
American Ornithologists’ Union, . ‘ : : : 2
Ames, George L., ‘ ; : : i : l
Amherst Sollee, ; : ; 3
Amherst, Massachusetts Ai Saanatel Cones , ; 8
Amherst, Massachusetts State Agricultural Experiment
Station, . ‘ j : 1
Amiens, Société Tinnéenins du Notd de e Branes! : : 14
Amsterdam, Société Royale de Zodlogie ‘‘Natura Artis
Magistra,” A . x i ‘ ‘ : ]
Andover, Phillips Aondeting 1
Andover, Theological Seminary Library, , , ; ]
Andrews, Charles H., : | ; f ; : } 1 l
Andrews, John P., ; P ‘ ; - : . 2
Andrews, Mrs. Ruth S., . : , 5 ; , 3 1
Andrews, Samuel P., : : : : ‘ ‘ ‘ L2 0h ne
Andrews, William P., ‘ ; ; ‘ : ; A 13
Archer, A. J., : i : . Newspapers, 13 56
Ayer, J. C. & Co., Lowell, : ‘ : A : ; 1
Bailey, Miss Mary O., Dorchester, . , P i : 1

Balch, (G, B., Yonkers, N. Y., , : : ; ; 1

154 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Baldwin, C. C., Cleveland, O.,

Baldwin, William H., Boston, ;
Baltimore, Md., Gollese of Physicians Aine Bue eons
Baltimore, Maryland Historical Society,

Baltimore, Md., Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md., Peabody Institute,

Batavia, Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Moderlandcels

Indié,
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Giant
Bergens Museum, .
Berkeley, University of ouiiiomsia:
Berlin, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, :
Berlin, Verein zur Beforderung des Gartenbaues, .
Bern, Naturforschende Gesellschaft,
Blinn, H. C., Shaker Village, N. H., : ;
Bolles, Rev. E. C., D.D., New York, N. Y., . :
Bonn, Naturhistorischer Verein, :
Bordeaux, Académie Nationale des Shanes; Balles:
Lettres et Arts,
Bordeaux, Société Linnéenne,
Boston, American Academy of Arts and adiences
Boston, Appalachian Mountain Club,
Boston Board of Health,
Boston, City of,
Boston City Hospital, :
Boston, American Congregational Neactiaton:
Boston, Massachusetts General Hospital,
Boston, Massachusetts Historical Society,
Boston, Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
Boston, Massachusetts Humane Society,
Boston, Massachusetts Medical Society,
Boston, National Association of Wool RiengieoNaRers:
Boston, New England Conservatory of Music,
Boston, New England Historic-Genealogical Society,
Boston Public Library,
Boston, Sexton of the New Old South Ghaeeh:
Boston Society of Natural History,
Briggs, Miss M. E., ;
Bristol (Eng.) Naduralists? Bacicty:
Brooklyn (N. Y.) Library,
Brooks, Henry M.,
Brooks, Miss Margarette w.,
Brown, John T., Norwich, Ct.,
Brtinn, Naturforscher Verein,

11

—

Loot? Offa \=)

(S) ee

Cum bo

—

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Brunswick, Me., Bowdoin College,
Bruxelles, Société Belge de Microscopie,
Bruxelles, Société Entomologique, : : , ; 1
Bruxelles, Société Royale Malacologique,
Buenos Aires, Sociedad Cientifica Argentina,
Buffalo (N. Y.) Library, : - ; - : ;
Butler, James D., Madison, Wis., . ; : ; ; 1
Calcutta, Geological Survey of India,
Callendar, Hugh L., Cambridge, Eng., . 3 4 , 1
Cambridge, Harvard University, :
Cambridge, Museum of Comparative Zoology, :
Cambridge, Peabody Museum of American Archeology

and Ethnology, : : : i ;
Canada Royal Society, , ; : : 1
Chamberlain, James A., 5 : ‘ Maps, 27
Champaign, IIl., State Laboratory of Natural History,
Chapel Hill, N. C., Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society,
Charleston, S. C., Elliott Society of Science and Art,
Cherbourg, Société Nationale des Sciences Naturelles, . 1
Chever, Edward E., San Francisco, Cal.,
Chicago (Ill.) Board of Trade, ;
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Balkan Co.,
Chicago (Ill.) Historical Society, :
Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway Co.,
Christiania, Université Royale, ;
Christiania, Videnskabs Selskabet, . 4 ‘ 1
Cincinnati, Ohio Historical and Philosophical eociciy
Cincinnati, Ohio Mechanics’ Institute,
Cincinnati (O.) Society of Natural History,

no

oom &

bo

79

mm bo &

Clarke, Mrs. N.A., . ) ‘ , . ; 3 Ff 15 1030
238

Cogswell, William, . ‘ : : ‘ ‘ : : 1
Cole; Mrs. N.,.D.., A : ‘ Newspapers,
Columbus, Ohio Meicosnlosieal Bureau, , A
Conant, W. P., Charleston, S. C., . . Newspapers,
Concord, New Hampshire Historical Society,
Copenhague, Académie Royale,
Copenhague, Société Botanique, :
Cordoba, Academia Nacional de Ciencias,
Crowell, Rev. E. P., Amherst, . } ;
Curwen, George R., ‘ ‘ , . Newspapers, 6
Curwen, James B., . i ! ; . Newspapers, 6
Cutter, A. E., Charlestown, . , : : :
Cutter, B., New York, N. Y.,
Darling,’ C. W:, Utica, N. Y.,

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 1a!

bo =
no = = — bo

ho

m™ © lo bo

156 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Darmstadt, Verein fiir Erdkunde, :
Davenport (Ia.) Academy of Natural Sciences,

Detroit, Mich., Microscope Publishing Co.,

Detroit (Mich.) Public Library,

Dodge, ——

Dodge, Greville 5 New otk, N. Y.,

Doran, Joseph I., Philadelphia, Pa.,

Dresden, Naturwissenschaftliche Géedlischaft: y Isis,”
Dresden, Verein fiir Erdkunde,

Dublin, Royal Irish Academy,

Dublin, Roya. Society, : : : .
Duncan, Estate of James H., Hhverhill, Newspapers,
Dyer, George L., U. S. Navy, :
Edinburgh Royal Society,

Edwards, Mrs. Henry W.., : : . Newspapers,
Emden, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, . . f
Emerton, James, : . Newspapers,

Emmerton, Heirs of the ihite hein;
Emmerton, Bequest of the late James A.,
Endicott, Charles, ;

Endicott, Estate of the late William P:
Erlangen, Physikalisch-medicinische Societiit,
Essex (Eng.) Field Club,

Ewing, Thomas, Marietta, O.,

Exeter, N. H., Phillips Exeter Mesdenayes
Falmouth, Eng., Royal Cornwall Polytechnic ee
Firenze, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale,
Fletcher, W. I., Amherst,

Flynn, M. H.,
Franktfurt-a-M., pine oulergisene eT Fe eGale Ge-
sellschaft,

Freiburg, Naturforschende Cosoisenan,

Geneve, Institut National Geneévois,

Genéve, Société de Physique et d’Histoire neville;

Gillis, James A., Winchendon, . ; . Newspapers,

Glasgow, Natural History Society, : .

Goodrich, Mrs. Almira T., Portsmouth, N. H.,
Newspapers,

Gottingen, K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,

Gould, John H., Topsfield,

Grant, Miss Bentvice: : : . Newspapers,
Granville, O., Denison Tnivessity, ; ;
Gray, Miss Susan, . : : . . Newspapers,

Green, Samuel A., Boston, : : . Newspapers,

bo

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Giistrow, Verein der Freunde der Naturgeschichte,
Hale, Rev. E. E., Boston,

Halifax, Nova Scotian Institute of Magaent Siena
Hall, James, Albany, N. Y., : :
Halle, K. Leopoldinisch- Caroliniaehe De Auaaetne
Hamburg, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein,

Hannover, Naturhistorische Gesellschaft,

Harlem, Société Hollandaise des Sciences,

Harris, Miss R. A., , :

Hartford, Ct., Trinity College,

Hassam, John T., Boston,

Higginson, T. W., Cambridge,

Hildeburn, Charles R., Philadelphia, Pa.,

Hill, H. A., Boston,

Hitchcock, Edward, Amherst,

Hoadly, C. J., Hartford, Conn.,

Hoar, George F., Worcester,

Hobart, Government of Tasmania,

Hobart, Tasmania Royal Society,

Hotchkiss, Justus S., New Haven, Conn., , ;
Hovey, Charles H., Cambridge, , . Newspapers,
Hunt, Thomas F., _. : , ; . Newspapers,
Hyatt, Alpheus, Bestar?

Iowa City, Iowa State Historical Society, i ‘
Israel, Mrs. Fielder, : ; F . Newspapers,

Israel, Rev. Fielder, 3 ) é . Newspapers,
Ives, Henry P., : ; ‘ . Newspapers,

Jenkins, Steuben, Weyonnie. Fax,

Jenks, Rev. Henry F., Canton, .

Keyes, Charles R., Burlington, Ia.,

Kilby, W. H., Boston,

Kimball, James P., Wraskiugion, Dp: C.,

Kingsley, J. S., Bloomington, Ind.,

Kjébenhavn, Botaniske Forening, ;
Kj6benhavn, K. D. Videnskabernes SeIse ue.

Knight, Miss M. E.,

Konigsberg, Be aaikaliaer! Akoneiiigune Gadellsehatts
Lamson, Frederick,

Lansing, Michigan State Libpaey, ,

Lausanne, Société Vaudoise des Sciences Mabaneliens
Lawrence, George N., New York, N. Y.,

Lawrence Public Library, ‘ é
Lee, Francis H., : : ; osu ane
Leeds, Eng., Literary and EuiosapRical Society,

52

13

—_
our or

31
32

158 THE RETROSPECr OF THE YEAR.

Le Mans, Société d’Agriculture, Sciences et Arts de la
Sarthe, 5

Liége, Société Royale des elienced!

Lincoln, Nebraska University, .

Little, David M.,

Littleton Lyceum,

Livingston, Mrs. William !, PEtenb vOut: N. in

Newspapers,

London, Royal Society, : ‘

Longenecker, J. H., Harrisburg, Pa.,

Loring, George B., 3

Lowell, Old Residents’ Bistori¢al nesoctaHee

Lund, Université Royale, :

Luscomb, Charles B., Brooklyn, N. Y.,

McClure, P. F., Bismarck, Dak., . ; ; ;

McDaniel, Rev. B. F., San Diego, Cal., . Newspapers,

Macfie, R. A., Neston Chester, Eng.,

Mack, William, . ; : '

McKee, James Cooper, Watertown,

Madison, Wis., State Historical Society,

Madrid, Observatorio,

Madrid, Sociedad Espanola de Hisvorik Natiat

Manchester, Eng., Literary and Philosophical Society, .

Manning, James,

Marsh, Lucius B., Boston,

Marshall, John W., Rockport,

Marston, Estate of the late Miss Isabella T.,

Massachusetts Commonwealth, Secretary of,

Massachusetts Society for promoting Good Gitiadasling:

Massachusetts State Board of Health,

Meek, H. M.,

Meriden (Ct.) Scisutitie Societe:

Merrill, William, jr., West Newbury.

Michigan Agricultural College,

Middletown, Ct., Wesleyan University,

Milwaukee, Wisconsin Natural History Society,

Montreal (Can.) Natural History Society,

Morse, Edward S., '

Moseley, Edward A., niraeuinwton: D. Gs

Miinchen, K. b. Akademie der Wissenschaften,

Napoli, R. Accademia delle Scienze fisiche e matematiche,

Nelson, William H.,

Neuchatel, Société des ee cnt see

Nevins, W. S.,

548

13

— pt bo

201

RO

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Newark, New Jersey Historical Society,

New Bedford, First Congregational Society, : :

Newell, Miss M. E., Brookline, : . Newspapers,

New Haven (Conn.,) Colony Historical Society,

New Haven, Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences,

'New Haven, Conn., Yale University,

Newport, R. I., Redwood Library, 4

New York, N. Y., Academy of Anthropology,

New York, N. Y., Academy of Sciences, . p

New York, N. Y., American Geographical Society,

New York, N. Y., Astor Library, :

New York, N. Y., Central Park Menagerie,

New York (N. Y.) Chamber of Commerce,

New York (N. Y.) Genealogical and Biographical eee
ety, ;

New York (N. Y.) Figbowtont Saciely.

New York, N. Y., Linnean Society,

New York (N. Y.) Mercantile Library Associationl,

New York (N. Y.) Microscopical Society,

New York (N. Y.) Post Graduate Medical Seldel snd
Hospital,

New York, N. Y., Torrey Botenion Club,

Nichols, Andrew, jr., Danvers,

Nichols, John H., : : : : . Newspapers,
Northend, William D., ‘ . i : ;
Nourse, Miss Dorcas C., . : : . Newspapers,

Nourse, Thorndike, London, Eng., .
Nurnberg, Naturhistorische Gesellshaft,
Ottawa, Canada Geological and Natural History Sauron

Maps,
Palermo, R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere e Belle Arti,
Palfray, Charles W., , 4 f . Newspapers,

Paris, Société d’Acclimatation,

Paris, Société d’ Anthropologie,

Paris, Société des Etudes Historiques,
Payson, Edward H.,

Peabody, George L., Philadeipnia, P. ie
Peabody Institute, Peabody,

Peet, Rev. S. D., Mendon, IIl.,

Peirce, Estate of the late Nathan,
Perkins, George A.,

Perkins, Henry A., PHAN eIeHiA: Eee
Perley, M. V. B., Ipswich,

Perley, Sidney,

82

ou

159

17

— eS OO = —& KS LD

me CO =m OO

160 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Perry, Rev. William S., Davenport, Ia.,

Pettee, Benjamin, Boston, ;
Philadelphia, Pa., Academy of Natuarl Beige:
Philadelphia, Pa., American Philosophical Society,
Philadelphia, Pa., Indian Rights Association, .
Philadelphia, Pa., Library Company, ;
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Historical Society,
Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, : é
Philbrick, Misses H. and E., F : Newspapers,
Phillips, Henry, jr., Philadelphia, Pa.,

Phillips, Stephen H., s F : é
Phippen, Joshua, ; é ; : . Newspapers,
Pickering, Miss Sallie,

Plumer, Miss Mary N., . : : . Newspapers,

Pool, Wellington, Wenham,

Porter, Rev. Aaron, ‘ : ; . Newspapers,

Powell, Charles T., Boston, ;
Providence, Rhode Island Hidtonioal Sociein,

Providence, R. I., Narragansett Historical Publishine

Company, 3
Providence (R. I.) Public is iataneee,
Pulsifer, David, Boston,
Putnam, Rev. A. P., Concord,
Putnam, F. W., Cambridge, :
Quebec, Can., Literary and Historical To
Quinn, Thomas,
Rantoul, Robert S.,
Redmond, C. C.,
Regensburg, K. Bayerische maniac Coselleckail.
Regensburg, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein,
Rice, Franklin P., Worcester,
Rice, William, Springfield,
Richmond, Virginia Historical Society,

Rio de Janeiro, Museo Nacional, : . : . ;
Roberts, Mrs. Ji. K.,°. : : : Newspapers,
Roberts, Miss M. L., : P :
Robinson, John, : : Newspapers,
Roma, Biblioteca Wariiniie iva Vittorio Emanuele,
Ropes, Willis H., . : . . Newspaper,

Russell, John A., San Tae ae, Cals.

Sacramento, California State Library, :

St. John, New Brunswick Natural History Seniobn
St. Louis, Mo., Academy of Sciences,

116

Sr
to

bo OO

10:

a tr

13

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

St. Louis (Mo.) Public Library,

St. Paul, Minnesota I[listorical Society, :

St. Pétersbourg, Académie Impériale des Sciences,

St. Petersburg, Societas Entomologica Rossica,

Salem, First Church,

Salem, First National Bank,

Salem Fraternity,

Salem National Bank,

Salem, Peabody Academy of Stieaee!

Salem Press, ‘ : : , ;

San Francisco, Cal., Board of Supervisors,

San Francisco (Cal.) Free Public Library, ;

San Francisco (Cal.) Mercantile Library Association,

San Francisco, Cal., Society of the Sons of Rovolutions
ary Sires,

Sargent, Stephen Hoyt,

Savannah, Georgia Historical Shciety:

Scranton, Pa., Lackawanna Institute of History a Science,

Shanghai, China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,
Sheffield, W. P., Newport, R. I.,
Sheldon, George, Deerfield,

Short, Miss J. H., ; , ; y ‘Cireular,
Simon, Miss Adaline F., : : , 5 ,
Sims, Mrs. R. T., ; : é : . Newspapers,

Skinner, J. P.,

Smith, A. Aug., 5 ; : : P Y 3

South Boston, Perkins Institution and Massachusetts
School for the Blind,

Stettin, Entomologischer Verein,

Stewart, William M., Washington, D. on

Stickney, George A. D., 5 ‘ : : 4

Stimpson, T. M., : : : . Newspapers,

Stockholm, Société Putomoloaiate i ‘ ;
Stone, Mrs. Ellen A., East Lexington, Newspapers,

Stone, F. D., Philadelphia, Pa.,

Stone, George F., Chicago, IIl1.,

Stone, Henry, Boston,

Stone, Miss Mary H., : ; :

Stone, Robert, . ; etmiapeDs:

Sydney, Linnean Society of New South Wales,

Sydney, Royal Society of New South Wales,

Taunton, Eng., Somersetshire Archeological and ature
History Society,

Tennessee State Board of Health,

Thayer, Oliver,

161

2
1
9
2
40
6
114 2404
29 11
3 209
240
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1 1
1
29 23
5
265
1
1
1
5
4
2
1
1
1
30
1
1 1
1
12
17

162 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Throndhjem, K. N. Videnskabers Selskab,

Titus, Rev. Anson, Towanda, Pa.

Topeka, Kansas Historical Society: . 18

Topeka, Kan., Washburn College Laboratory of Nararal
History,

Toronto, Can., Cinaai a imei fate:

Townsend, John P., New York, N. Y.,

Trenchard, Edward, New York, N. Y.,

Trenton (N. J.) Natural History Society,

Trenton, New Jersey State Library, . : : : 1
Tromso Museum, é ; : ‘ : : é
Trumbull, Walter H., : ; Newspapers,
Turner, J. H., Idel, Bradford, ine,

Turner, Ross, . : ‘ ; j ‘ ; 4
Underwood, Miss Jennie, DaAers. . , ; : 74
Unknown, ; : : ; é : I

Upton, Winslow, PROT seco, R. i

. National Museum,

. Patent Office,

. Quartermaster General,

. Surgeon General,

. Treasury Department,

S. War Department, :

Walton, Mrs. Eliza A., Ipswich, : .
Washington, D. C., Anthropological Society,
Washington, D. C., Smithsonian Institution,

Watanabe, Hiromoto, Tokio, Japan,

Waters, E. S., Minneapolis, Minn., , ‘ :
Waters, J. Linton, . : . Newspapers,

U. S. Bureau of Education, i
U. S. Chief of Engineers, ; ; ; . F 4
U. S. Chief of Ordnance, ; : P . . : 2
U. S. Chief Signal Officer, 2
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1
U. S. Comptroller of the Currency, : : ; ‘ 2
U. S. Department of Agriculture, ; ; : ;

U. S. Department of the Interior, . : : : , 97
U. S. Department of State, : : : : Maps, 36
U. S. Fish Commission, 9
U. S. Geological Survey, . ; : : ’ 3
U. S. Life Saving Service, 1
U.s

cs

Us

U.S

Us

We

ao a

bo

Waterville, Me., Colby aRveRsiies . : :
Watson, Miss C. A., North Andover, Newspapers,

Watson, S. M., Portland, Me., :
Weeks, Stephen B., Chapel Hill, N. C.,

= doe He

13

9

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Welch, W... Ta. 5: F : F
Wheatland, Henry, :
Whipple, George M., “
Whipple, Prescott, :
Whitney, Mrs. H. M., Bawmmenbe:
Wien, K. K. Zoologisch- Botanische
Wien, Verein zur Verbreitung
Kenntnisse, . ‘

Wiesbaden, Verein fiir araniciivale:

Wilder, E. W., Boston,
Willson, Mrs. FE. B.,

Willson, Rev. E. B.,

Winsor, Justin, Cambridge,
Winthrop, Robert C., Boston, .

Women’s Anthropological Society of America,

Woods, Mrs. Kate T.,

Worcester, American Antiquarian Society, .

Worcester, Society of Antiquity,
Wright, Frank V.,

Wright, W. H. K., Figmeabi Bag bf ,
Wirzburg, Physikalisch-Medicinische Gascllachatt: -

“ 135 105

3 , 9 : 8

. Newspapers, Y Wed

- Newspapers, 52

Newspapers, 5

Gesellschaft, . 5 4
Naturwissenschaftlicher

1

é : 1

: : P 3
Newspapers,

Newspapers, 492

2 F y F 32

A 3 : ¢ 12

‘ 1
Newspapers,

2

1

‘ Pe : PEE

9

1

The following have been received from editors or pub-

lishers :

American Exchange and Mart.
American Journal of Science.
American Naturalist.
Beverly Citizen.

Cape Ann Advertiser.
Chicago Journal of Commerce.
Danvers Mirror.

Georgetown Advocate.
Groton Landmark.

Iowa Churchman.

Ipswich Chronicle.

La Bibliophile.

Lawrence American.

Le Naturaliste Canadien.
Lynn Bee.

Manifesto.

Martha’s Vineyard Herald.
Musical Herald.

Musical Record.

Nation.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXxI

Naturalists’ Leisure Hour and
Monthly Bulletin.

Nature.

New England Magazine.

Open Court.

Our Dumb Animals.

Peabody Press.

Peabody Reporter.

Sailors’ Magazine and Seamen’s
Friend.

Salem Gazette.

Salem News.

Salem Observer.

Salem Register.

Salem Sun.

Statesman.

Traveler’s Record.

Violce.

Zoologischer Anzeiger.

1 Ba

164 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

THe Museum. The donations to the Museum during the
year number 369 from 102 contributors. The specimens in
natural history, including those in archeology, which have
been received during the year, have been placed on deposit
with the Trustees of the Peabody Academy of Science, in”
accordance with previous arrangements ; those of an histor-
ical character, or which possess an artistic interest, have
been placed in the rooms of the Institute. They have been
received from the following donors :

James A. Chamberlain; Andrews, Moulton & Johnson; Edw. A.
Smith; H. M. Brooks,mourning rings, etc. ;Wellington Poolof Wenhain ;
Prescott Whipple; Mrs. R. S. Andrews, a miniature of Rev. S. P. Hill;
A. Averill; John P. Andrews, picture of Bark Patriot of Salem 1817;
George R. Curwen, miniature, Para rubber shoes; Francis H. Wade,
collection of log books; Edward S. Morse; Chas. H. Andrews; Win. M.
Hill; Mrs. Chas. Osgood; Mrs. H. M. Brooks, scrap-box made by the
Misses Derby of South Salem with collection of plaster casts ; Mrs.
Maria H. Bray of East Gloucester; J. Archer Hill; Miss Sarah E. Smith,
fan made in Paris, 1796, with American and French emblems; Arthur
H. Tibbets, oil painting by B. F. West of Salem, whaling scene about
1837; Perry Collier; Dan’] Henderson; Thomas H. Johnson; Edwin
O. Foster; C. W. Browne; Edw. B. Lane; E. H. Payson, steelyards 150
years old and pocket-book of Col. Abner Cheever of the Boston Tea
Party; John P. Tilton; Francis H. Lee; Johu Robinson, lith. death bed
of Harrison 1841, Franklin stove, mourning ring 1740, autograph letter
of W. E. Gladstone; Geo. H. Allen, photograph of ship Panay, framed ;
W. OL. Welch; Henry M. Batchelder; Chas. B. Luscomb of Brooklyn,
N. Y.; Samuel Thorner; Geo. L. Ames, Washington plate; Mrs. D. A.
Russell of Waverly; Mrs. Eliza G. Waters; John B. Skinner; Josiah M.
Crocker; James Chamberlain; Misses M. E. andH O. Williams; Mrs.
Anna J. Haskell of W. Roxbury, wax dolls from Paris in 1838; Samuel
P. Andrews; Merchants National Bank; Geo. M. White; Margaret M.
Haskell; E. M. R. Brooks; Mary S. Cleveland; Mary Otis Bailey of
Dorchester, old papers, deeds, etc. ; Lucy H. Cleveland; Annie E. Snell;
Fielder Israel; M. H. Flynn; Charlotte Crowninshield; Ross Turner;
Thos. F. Hunt; Frank V. Wright; Mrs. Jos. Winn of Newton; Capt.
Wm. H. Nelson, painting of the destruction of the ship Harvey Birch
by Confederate cruiser Nashville, Nov. 19, 1861; Miss Susan V. Hotch-
kiss of New Haven; the Misses King of Beverly, framed portrait of
Hon. John G. King, 1825; Caleb Buffum; Rev. Chas. Noyes of North
Andover; John Cross of Liverpool, Florida; Misses Chadwick, loom

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 165

for fringe, tape, etc.; David Moore, Exer. Est. Miss I. T. Marston;
Henry P. Ives; Mrs. Paul B. Lakeman of Ipswich, ancient lace frame ;
Andrew K. Ober of Beverly, ancient horn spoon; Heury Wheatland ;
T. M. Proctor of Essex; W. P. Upham of Newtonville; Estate of Jas.
A. Einmerton, picture of ship Francis of Salem, 24 log books, statu-
ette of Venus in plaster; Henry W. Putnam; Mrs. F. H. Lee, Chinese
paintings on rice paper; Kate T. Woods; Benjamin Barstow; Mrs. N.
O. Very; Jas. C. Casey ; James Coffey; H. K. Oliver, M. D. of Boston,
manuscript adcress of Gen. Oliver at the 50th anniversary of the Salem
Lyceum; James Manning; Essex County Teachers’ Association ; Estate
of J. H. Duncan of Haverhill; Miss Mary 1. Stone; Henry A. Chase; J.
Linton Waters; Willis H. Ropes; Mrs C.K. Ireson, original stamp seal
of the Salem mill dam; estate of Sarah O. Russell; N. A. Horton & Son;
Dr. Geo. A. Perkins; Waldo Higginson of Boston, two framed photo-
graphs of Gov. Higginson and wife and Stephen Aynsworth and wife,
from paintings about the close of the seventeenth century; Geo. Up-
ton; Mrs. §. M. Trow of Ipswich; Miss Lucy P. Robinson, postage
stamp album and postage stamps; H. H. Moore of San Francisco, Cal.

Fine Arts. The committee on Fine Arts would report
the successful termination of a course of Chamber Concerts
given at Academy Hall under the direction of this Commit-
tee. No attempt was made as in former years to get sub-
scriptions from those who generally subscribe to Institute
entertainments through friendship for the society alone. It
was the wish of your Committee to discover, if possible,
whether there was such a demand for concerts of the char-
acter proposed as would warrant the Institute in undertak-
ing to provide them. Circulars were, therefore, sent to
all persons in Salem and vicinity known to be interested
in music, and a subscription paper was left at the store of
Mr. E. V. Emilio. The subscription amounted to $297,
this with a balance of $150, in the hands of the Committee
which could be utilized for the purpose, and the generous
offer of the Peabody Academy of Science, not only to share
a portion of the expenses of the Hall, but also to remit all
charges in case the concerts were not successful, encouraged
your Committee to proceed.

166 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

The concerts cost $432.53
The subscription was $297.00
And door sales 23.50
Total receipts $320.50
Showing a direct loss of $112.03

which was made up from the balance above named. It is evi-
dent to your committee that with a little exertion, and with
the hearty codperation of several well-known musicians
promised for next season, it would be wise for the Institute
to arrange for a course of concerts next season similar to
that just closed. This Committee would also suggest that it
would be well to add to the number, two concerts in which
the services of a small orchestra could be secured. The
course to consist of five as follows :—

Two trio—violin, ’cello and piano,

One quartet,

Two with small orchestra.

These concerts could be given it is thought at not much, if
any, greater expense, and would appeal to a larger circle of
music lovers. Your committee would also suggest that the
programs be carefully made up, and that the concerts do
not exceed in lengthan hourand twenty minutes, thus allow-
ing patrons to take early cars to Peabody, Beverly, ete.

The thanks of this Cemmittee are due to the Trustees of
the Peabody Academy of Science, and the attachés of Acad-
emy Hall for courtesies extended; and also to Messrs.
Foote, Fenollosa and Phippen for their efforts in making
the concerts an artistic success, as well as to the other artists
taking part in the different concerts of the series, all of
whom exhibited special and kindly interest in the under-
taking. ,

For the Committee,
Epwarp 8S. Morss,

March 6, 1889. Chairman.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

167

TREASURER’S Report. Receipts and expenditures of
the past year (condensed from account presented).

RECEIPTS.

For balance of last year’s account, : : - c - -
“© legacy from the late Dr.J. A. Emmerton, . . c $10,000 00
“ interest of the manuscript fund, . Q - e : ( 59 56
as vt. se « Derby Fund, 6 é “ : : 31 60

Amount to be invested,
“assessments of members, - r! : A A ‘ c $903 00

‘¢ jncome of invested funds, - ° - 7 - 5 - 2,674 37

“ sale of publications, : CL ee mee Copa ire 425 05
*¢ amount from other sources, . - ° : c 4 a 175 91
Net income,
EXPENDITURES.
By investment of legacy from Dr. J. A. Emmerton, . - $10,395 94
** amount added to deposit of manuscript fund, . .« - 59 56
a a ‘ se “e ‘¢ Derby fund, c q C 31 60

Amount invested,
“* salaries of secretary, assistant-librarians and janitor, . $1,765 00
** cost of publications and printing, 5 4 - : . 1,052 94.

** cost of books, . 4 : 5 ¢ As - > s : 133 81
*< cost of fuel, é c - . : . : ° : 225 75
‘* paid Salem Athenzum, portion of TopNItE and expenses, 279 28
“ cost of postage, expressage, stationery, etc., . : ° 247 04
* premiums of insurance, . ° ° ‘ . - ° ° 38 50
** city tax on barn, é 6 s A : : - “ 22 40
** annuities, Hecomenay ite legacies, . < : ° - 210 00

Net expenses,
Balance cash on hand,

June 14, 1889. Respectfully submitted,
GEO. D. PHIPPEN, Treasurer.
Examined and approved,
R. C. MANNING, Auditor.

INVESTMENT OF THE FUNDS.

For purposes of income, - - C (cost),
* occupancy, viz., ‘‘ The Wesex Instioate Building,”
first cost, ° ° . Aree ° * . 14,000 00
“ repairs and Tipeveuente thereon, - - A s 14,370 69
The Ship Rock and land as on books, : ° . ° 100 00

Total investment,

$588 27

$10,091 16

$4,178 33

$14,857 76

$10,487 10

$3,974 72
395 94

$14,857 76

$61,227 96

$28,470 69

$89.698 65

Salem, June 14, 1889, Examined and found to agree with the securities,
R. C. MANNING, Auditor.

168 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

MemMBERS. It is with a profound sense of the losses
which have occurred to the Institute, since its last annual
meeting, that we refer to the deaths of several of its
members, some of whom have been widely known as
holding or having held official relations, or as contributors
of papers to the publications, of books to the library,
of manuscripts of various kinds to its archives, specimens
to the cabinets, portraits and other paintings to the art
department. These have left blanks in our fellowship it
seems impossible to fill.

ELeAZER Austin died on Sunday, March 10, 1889, at
his residence, 58 Lafayette street, Salem; son of Richard
and Isabella (Symonds) Austin, and was born in Salem
May 14, 1804. In early life he was a shoe manufacturer,
having his factory on Hamilton street; subsequently, for
fifty years, in the lumber business, having a wharf on the
South river and his office near South bridge. He was
the United States assessor of internal revenue for ten
years. In 1877 he was elected an assessor of the city
and served continuously in that office until 1886, when
he retired on account of ill health. He was also an alder-
man in 1854 and 1855, and a member of the first board
of trustees of the Plummer Farm School for boys. Mr.
Austin was a worthy man in every relation of life, pos-
sessed of good judgment, and was highly esteemed.

Admitted to membership May 21, 1856.

GrorGE Francis Cuoate, of Salem, judge of probate
and insolvency for the county of Essex, Mass., died at
Sharon Springs, in New York, on the 11th of July, 1888.
He was the son of William and Lucretia (Burnham)
Choate, was born in the town of Essex, Feb. 9, 1822,
and was descended from one of the oldest and most re-

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 169

spected families in the county; a graduate of Bowdoin
college in 1843; after teaching, two years, a school in
his native town, he entered the law office of Hon. Jona-
than C. Perkins of Salem, and there pursued his studies.
In 1847 was admitted to the Essex bar, and entered into
law partnership with William D. Northend of Salem,
under the firm name of Northend & Choate, which was
continued until his appointment of Judge of Probate and
Insolvency for the county of Essex, in 1858. This office
he held until the time of his death.

Judge Choate possessed in an eminent degree the
qualities of mind and the temperament essential in the
performance of judicial duties; always dispassionate and
self-possessed, he tried cases with great patience and im-
partiality and was very frequently called to act as arbitra-
tor by parties as well as courts. He was a careful and
industrious student, well grounded in the principles of
common law, modest and unassuming in his manners.
He took a deep interest in the cause of education, and
served on the Board of School Committee of Salem four-
teen years, and he was for many years previous to the time
of his death a trustee of Dummer Academy.

Admitted to membership, Dec. 19, 1870.

GEORGE Ropinson EmmMerton died very suddenly on
Tuesday morning, May 22, 1888, at his residence in
Salem. He was the son of Ephraim and Mary Ann
(Sage) Emmerton, one of Salem’s distinguished mer-
chants of the past generation. He was born in Salem,
Feb. 9, 1836, and was educated at her schools; thence
went to the busy counting room of Glidden & Williams,
of Boston, and had his full share of the bustle of early
California freighting times.

He was intensely patriotic; when the civil war broke

170 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

out, at the age of 25, he became a member of the Union
Drill Club, of which he was a lieutenant. This organiza-
tion went to the front, as Company “ F,” 23d Mass. Vol.
Inf., in November, 1861 —G. M. Whipple, Capt., Charles
H. Bates, 1st Lieut., George R. Emmerton, 2d Lieut.
In this capacity he shared the fortunes of Burnside’s North
Carolina campaign, till mid-summer of 1862, when he
was taken sick, and came home an invalid, whose hold on
life was thought to be very uncertain. His recovery was
so slow that he was unable to accept the promotion that
awaited him, and, unwilling to occupy a position, the
duties of which he was unable to perform, he reluctantly
resigned.

After the war, he was associated for a time with his
brother, Capt. EK. Augustus Emmerton, in the manufact-
ure of bleaching powders, in Boston. Subsequently, the
partnership was dissolved and both entered the mercantile
house of the late John Bertram, whose daughter Mr.
Emmerton married. Upon the retirement of Captain
Bertram, our last great merchant, he became the junior
partner of the firm of Ropes, Emmerton & Co., which has
since conducted the extensive business with Zanzibar,
Madagascar and the Red Sea ports, founded by Captain
Bertram, owning the barques Taria Toppan, Glide and
Essex. Mr. Emmerton acquired wealth, and about a
year ago completed extensive changes in the old mansion,
owned and occupied for many years by the late William
Pickman, making of it a most elegant house, in which he
and his family resided at the time of his death ; he showed
his affection and interest for his fellow-citizens, even in
this, that none but Salem mechanics were employed upon
the building and none of the work done was by contract.

He served on the Board of Aldermen in 1877, ’78, ’79,
°80, and was the first to hold the office of President of the

-THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. Lil

Board, after that position was created. His services were
of such great value to the city, that he had been, on
several occasions, besought to accept the nomination of
the mayoralty, but steadily declined its acceptance.

He was president of the Merchants’ National Bank, of
Salem, vice president of the Salem Savings Bank, a trus-
tee of the Salem Hospital, chairman of the standing
committee of the First (Unitarian) Church, one of the
original trustees of the Salem Public Library, elected by
the city council, Feb. 26, 1888. His was the first death
in that Board. He was largely instrumental in the con-
summation of the arrangements by which the Bertram
estate was deeded to the city, for a public purpose, and
manifested great interest in this embryo institution, and
his loss was severely felt by his associates; he also ex-
pressed a like degree of interest in the proposed memorial
to the patriotic dead of Salem, a few years since, making
at the time a munificent offer to share in the expense, but
the city council failed to adopt the idea, and the matter
was dropped.

A member of the Finance Committee of the Essex
Institute since 1879, he took an active part in the purchase
of the Daland house and fitting the same for the arrange-
ment of its library and various collections. Mr. Emmer-
ton was a man of independence, of great firmness and
decision of character, of marked integrity and uprightness
as a citizen, and was greatly respected by those associated
with him in trusts and business affairs generally.

Admitted to membership, July 1, 1878.

James ARTHUR EMmMerToON died on Monday evening, De-
cember 31, 1888, after a short illness at his home, in Salem.
It isa noteworthy circumstance that this is the second some-
what sudden death that has occurred in the Board of Trus-

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 12

172 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

tees of the New Public Library ; his own brother, George
R. Emmerton, being the first. He was a son of the late
Ephraim Emmerton and lived in the old family mansion,
on Summer street. He was born August 28, 1834, pur-
sued his preparatory studies at the Salem Latin School,
under the principalship of Oliver Carlton; graduated at
Harvard College in the class of 1855 ; the Harvard Medical
School in 1858 ; spent six months abroad in 1858-9, a resi-
dent student at the Rotunda Lying-in Hospital, and attend-
ant surgeon Wildes’ Kye and Ear Cliniques at Dublin.

At the commencement of hostilities, he enlisted in com-
pany “F’,” 23d Reg. Vol. Infantry in October, 1861, and
was warranted as corporal. His army record is as follows :

Corporal, Co. F, 23d Mass. Vols., October 1, 1861 ; left
the state November 11, 1861; battle at Roanoke Island,
N. C.; as volunteer served a howitzer gun landed from a
transport, and the same at the battle of Newbern ; detailed
acting Asst. Surgeon, 23d Mass. Vols., April, 1862; Asst.
Surgeon, 23d Mass. Vols., July 31, 1862 ; ordered to Roan-
oke Island, August 24, 1862; Post Surgeon, Plymouth,
September 28; ordered to Foster U. S. Gen. Hospital,
Newbern, January, 1863 ; rejoined his Regiment, at New-
port News, Va., October 22; joined the rendezvous with
his Regiment, April, 1864; in the field of action between
the Appomattox and James Rivers, in May, and Cold Har-
bor in June; Surgeon, 2d Mass. H. A., May 26, 1864;
joined his regiment at Newbern, N. C., June 27; went with
five companies of his regiment to open communications with
General Sherman, March 3, 1865 ; in charge of Post Hos-
pital, May ; mustered out, September 3, 1865.

After leaving the army where his gallantry was conspic-
uous he was assistant physician in the New York State Lu-
natic Asylum, at Utica,in 1866-7 ;retiring from this position
he gave up the practice of medicine and devoted much of

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. Wie

his time to genealogical and historical studies. In 1879
with his college classmate and fellow soldier, and life-
long intimate, Henry Fitzgilbert Waters, he was searching
English records and collecting a large amount of valuable
information that has been published by the Institute in its
Historical Collections. He was the historian of the twenty-
third regiment, and prepared one of the best regimental
histories of the state, issued from the press.

He compiled a genealogy of the Emmerton family in 1881,
privately printed at the Salem Press. i

The following communications compiled by him have
been printed in the Historical Collections of the Institute :

* Deacon Richard Prince of Salem, and some of his de-
scendants,” Vol. X1v, p. 249.

“Notes and Extracts from the Records of the First
Church of Salem, 1629-1736,” Vol. xv, p. 70, and Vol.
avi, p. 8.

“Gleanings from English Records about New England
Families.” The results of asummer residence in London,
1879, in company with his friend H. F. Waters, Vol. xvir,
pp. 1-147.

* A genealogical account of Henry Silsbee and some of
his descendants,” Vol. xvi, p. 257.

“Dr. Bentley’s East Parish deaths, some notes and cor-
Fecnons, Vol. xx, p. 209. '

“Kighteenth-century Baptisms in Salem, Mass., hitherto
unpublished,” Vols. xxi, XXIII.

These communications are a valuable contribution to our
local history and will be of inestimable value to the future
historian and a noble tribute to his memory as a faithful
and zealous worker in this field of labor. In addition to
his life’s work, of which we have many illustrations, he has
left a fund, the income, after the lapse of a contingency, to
be appropriated for the printing of the oldrecords and other

174 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

historical materials ; though dead, yet he will be in the fu-
ture contributing material aid in the promotion of historical
studies and research.

Dr. Emmerton’s interest in libraries and library systems,
his familiarity with books, having had a large and valuable
library of his own, his taste for literature and the fine arts,
his interest in local history, also the leisure to attend to the
duties, rendered him a very suitable person to occupy a
place on the board of trustees of the new public library,
to which he was called by a vote of the city council on the
evening of February 27, 1888 (the board of trustees con-
sists of six persons originally elected by the city council,
with the mayors of the city, ex-officio, chairmen; vacan-
cies by death or resignation to be filled by the remaining
members). We cannot conclude this notice of Dr. Emmer-
ton without alluding to the assiduous care and attention
that he bestowed upon his aged father during the declining
years of his life, and even to its close which occurred on
Mirch 22, 1877.4

Admitted to membership, January 14, 1856.

Wicwuiam H. Foster, the oldest bank officer in the Uni-
ted States, and exshier emeritus of the Asiatic National
Bank of Salem, died at his home in that city, on Friday

1Captain Ephraim Emmerton was a son of Jeremiah and Elizabeth (New-
hall) Emmerton, born in Salem, July 6, 1791, married June 8, 1826. Mary Ann,
daughter of Daniel and Deborah (Silsbee) Sage, [b. April 1, 1815, d. March 22, 1879.]
Commercial pursuits were his life’s business; in the early part following the seas,
captain or supercargo, or both, of vessels engaged principally in the East India
trade and after his marriage, employing his capital in the familiar Calcutta chan-
nels, and afterwards in the Zanzibar trade, in which he was one of the first to en-
gage. He was one of the original members of the Institute, joining the Natural
History Society in 1834, holding a position on some of the important committees,
and early sharing the awakened interest in Pomology which made the gardens of
Salem so famous forty or fifty years ago, he pushed to its utmost the capacity of
his little city-garden. In the Institute exhibitions of those times he was a liberal
contributor, displaying pears in sixty odd varieties unexcelled in their waxen
comeliness.

See Hist. Coll. Vol. XIv, p. 277.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 175

morning, November 30, 1888. He was the son of John and
Mary (Burchmore) Foster, born in Salem, December 23,
1797, and was educated in the district school of his native
town. During the war of 1812-15, he was assistant to the
United States marshal for the district of Massachusetts.
After the war he went to Gloucester to assist his brother ;
after his brother’s retirement from business he returned to:
Salem and was aclerk in the Boston and Salem stage com-
pany. When the Asiatic Bank of Salem commenced busi-
ness he accepted the position of bookkeeper, in the autumn
of 1824; four years later, on the retirement of Mr. J. S.
Cabot the cashier, he was appointed to that office which
he held till March, 1884, when he resigned having held the
office of cashier fifty-six years. He was then appointed
cashier emeritus and made one of the directors. These
positions he held to the close of life. He was a very able
financier, wise and conservative in his investments and
conducted the affairs of the bank with integrity, and upon
attaining the fiftieth anniversary of his election as cashier,
he was honored by the directors of the bank with a hand-
some testimonial of his honesty and ability. Mr. Foster
was the friend of all young men and assisted many to good
positions, who have been successful business men and have
taken a high rank in the monetary world. He was a man
of very progressive ideas. It was his pride that he was one
of the original founders of the Salem Gas Light company,
and his house was the first private dwelling in Salem lighted
throughout by gas. He was also one of the prime movers
of the Eastern Railroad corporation, was the first clerk and
held the office many years.

He was identified with the Harmony Grove Cemetery
corporation from its inception in February, 1837 ; having
been its treasurer and its clerk ; looked after its finances ;
directed about the care of the grounds ; the sale of lots ; the

176 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

endowments made; the laying out of the additional land
which has been added to the grounds, and evincing the
greatest care and prudence; the clerkship he resigned in
February, 1888 ; the office of treasurer he retained until the
close of life. He wasa man of generous and charitable im-
pulses ; he had been a director in many enterprises in Salem
but took particular interest in the association for the relief
of the Aged and Destitute Women of which he was presi-
dent and whose inmates he entertained once a year at his
summer home, and in the Bertram Home for Aged Men
of which he was a trustee. He was the oldest surviving
member of the Salem Cadets in which he was enrolled in
1815, chosen ensign in 1824, and always took an active in-
terest in its affairs. Excepting his pay as cashier, his varied
duties were performed without compensation. He was a
very genial man, «in interesting talker, possessed of a great
fund of historic lore about old Salem, which he at times
committed to paper for the press, with a ready pen. He has
closed a useful and honorable life witha happy and serene
old age.

Admitted to membership of Essex County Natural Uis-
tory Society, June 17, 1835.

SAMUEL Pace FowLer died at his home in Danvers,
on Saturday morning, Dec. 15, 1888. He was born in
Danvers New Mills, now Danversport, Apr. 22, 1800; son
of Samuel and Clarissa (Page) Fowler. He had only the
limited education of the early country schools; his tastes
were literary and scientific, he was a student and close ob-
server of nature.

No person has held a more prominent place in the town
affairs of Danvers, social, literary, educational and paro-
chial, than Deacon Fowler.

He was one of those who attended the early meetings

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 17

in 1834, for the organization of the Essex County Nat.
Hist. Society which afterwards uniting with the Essex His-
torical Society was incorporated in 1848 as the Essex In-
stitute. He took a deep interest in the success of this
institution under its different phases and held various po-
sitions in its general management. For a more extended
notice of Mr. Fowler see Historical Collections of the In-
stitute, vol. XxXvI.

Lronarp Bonp Harrineton died at his residence, on
Federal street, Wednesday evening, Mar. 6, 1889; the
oldest leather manufacturer in Salem.

He was the son of Charles Harrington of Watertown,
and was connected, through his mother, with the historian
of that town; born July 29, 1803, passed his school days
in this city. He learned the trade of a tanner in Roxbury,
worked for several years as a journeyman tanner and cur-
rier, and from his savings was able to establish himself in
Salem in 1829, and quickly laid the foundation of a large
and successful leather manufactory. During the recent
civil war his business interests became more widely ex-
tended and increased immensely in volume. He brought
up many boys to the business who afterward held positions
of prominence in the trade.

He was president of the Bertram Home for aged men
in Salem and a trustee of the Salem Hospital, and took an
active interest in both institutions.

He was for many years president of the Asiatic National
Bank and was connected with monetary and other institu-
tions in Salem and Boston and took a leading part in their
management.

Mr. Harrington was a very pleasant and genial man,
made friends wherever he went, » man of strong convic-

178 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

tions and was always interested in political as well as busi-

ness affairs.
Admitted to membership Feb. 14, 1855.

GEORGE OLIver Harrts died at his residence 77 La-
fayette street, Salem, Tuesday night, Aug. 21, 1888. Son
of Capt. Thomas and Abigail (Chapin) Harris, born in
Charlestown, Mass., Mar. 31, 1810.

In early life he was in the counting room of Pickering
Dodge, a well-known and distinguished merchant of
Salem, having passed some part of his schoolboy days in
Switzerland.

Later he went to sea as supercargo or some similar po-
sition making voyages to the Fiji Isles, Russia and other
ports. Later in life, after residing for a while in New York
and in the west, he returned to Salem and was clerk in the
Naumkeag Steam Cotton Mills. Afterwards he was em-
ployed ina clerical capacity by the firm of N. Thayer and
Co. of Boston, his son Walter C. Harris succeeding in that
capacity.

Mr. Harris was a man of marked excellence of charac-
ter; he was not one to aspire to public life or distinctions
of any kind.

In all his business relations he exhibited the traits of
scrupulous integrity, and in every personal and public re-
lation those of true christianity. He had for a long series
of years been a very interested member of the Barton
Square Church and Society, and never withheld his con-
tribution to any good work that deserved encouragement
either in er out of the denomination with which he was
identified. Mrs. Harris who survives her husband was a
niece of Rev. Henry Coleman the first minister of the
church above named.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 179

The deceased was greatly respected by all who knew
him and no person’s memory will be more kindly cher-
ished.

Admitted to membership April 5, 1869.

DanteL C. Hasxery died on Thursday evening, Nov.
22, 1888, at his house 174 Federal street, Salem.

He was a son of Elijah and Lucy (Collins) Haskell,
and was born May 15, 1812.

He was a tanner and currier of the old school, and for
years conducted an extensive yard and shop on Mason
street. He was also associated with the well-known firm
of Varney, Haskell and Co., at one time doing a large
business in hides and leather on High street in Boston.
He was aman of solid worth of character, modest and re-
tiring, never aspired to public office, but served in the
common council in 1854 and 1855. He amassed prop-
erty and retired from active business some years ago. He
was earnest in his interest in the Universalist Church, and
prominent in his membership. He became a member of
the Essex Lodge F. A. M., June 5, 1855.

Admitted to membership July 6, 1864.

FIELDER IsraEL. Seldom has a death occurred in this
city that has caused such universal regret and called forth
expressions of regard so general, as that of the pastor of
the First Church, on Friday evening, Jan. 4, 1889.

The deceased was eminently genial and companionable,
cordial in his greetings to all, and earnest in every good
work. He was well known to all classes of citizens and
had many friends, for one could not know him except to
like him.

Fielder Israel was born in Baltimore, Md., June 29,
1825; son of Fielder and Sarah S. (Sempson) Israel; he

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 12*

180 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

was well-born; the family of Israel of Baltimore was a
sturdy people. He received his education at Baltimore
and at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. Leaving the latter
before his graduation, he entered the ministry of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church. He received his first appointment
as colleague of the late Rev. Robert Cadden, at Fort Royal,
Va., in 1845, whose daughter, Elizabeth S., he married
at Baltimore, March 28, 1850.

His theological views having undergone a change in
later years, he accepted a call to the Unitarian church
at Wilmington, Del., where he remained several years.
He seemed to have joined the Unitarians, without having
left the Methodists; honoring the great leaders of the
Methodist reform, Puritans in their way as were the early
New Englanders. ‘To the day of his death, he retained
his love for his old conference and his former church com-
panions. He was installed pastor of the First Church in
Salem, Mass., March 8, 1877.

Since coming to Salem he manifested a strong and lib-
eral public spirit. He took an interest in everything per-
taining to the welfare of the community. He was eminently
a man ofthe people. Philanthropic at heart, he practised a
broad generosity. He early associated himself with the
Essex Institute, was interested in its work ; frequently an
attendant upon its meetings, taking an active part in the
proceedings; was usually on some of the standing com-
mittees and frequently placed on those appointed for special
purposes. He was amember of the committee of arrrange-
ments on the commemoration of the two hundred and
fiftieth anniversary of the landing of John Endicott, at
Salem, Sept. 6, 1628, O. S., under the auspices of the
Essex Institute.

His reverence and love for the old church of which he
was the pastor was most profound, and his views upon the

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 181

religious life and teachings of the fathers were frequently
expressed in his sermons, and always commanded interest
and attention; the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary
of its organization, August the first, 1879, was duly com-
memorated by him with appropriate services. Hisheart was
in his church work; he had meetings with the teachers
of the Sunday school; he sought the children; he loved
hymns and church music; wherever he went, the methods
and doings of the First church had a voice to represent
them. As a reader of impressive hymns and stirring
verses, he had no superior in this community.

He was a firm believer in the principles of Free Mason-
ry, and became deeply interested in the work of the order,
and that interest continued unabated till the last days of
his life, a period of thirty-eight years; at the time of his
death, he was chaplain of the Grand Lodge of Massachu-
setts, of Starr King Lodge, Washington R. A. Chapter,
Sutton Lodge of Perfection and Salem Council, and until
his health failed he was always a regular attendant at the
meetings of those bodies.

Admitted to membership, May 21, 1877.

Henry FRANKLIN KING, a retired shipmaster of Salem,
died at the residence of his sister, Mrs. Charles Hoffman,
Chestnut St., Salem, on Thursday morning, Nov. 22,
1888, of Angina pectoris. He was a son of Capt. Henry
and Elizabeth (Gould) King,’ born in Salem, May 6,1811.
His father Capt. Henry King was born at Hudson, N. Y.,
and was probably descended from Samuel King, who was
born in England in 1633; the father William, the mother
Dorothea, himself and four other children, sailed from
Weymouth, England, for this country March 20, 1635,
and settled in Salem.

1 Henry King and Elizabeth Gould were married July 22, 1810.

182 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

About 1652, Samuel moved to Southold, L. I., married
Abigail Ludlam, daughter of William Ludlam, senior, of
South Hampton, L. I., and died Nov. 29, 1721. He was
buried in the oldchurchyard at Orient, L. I. His wife died
May 17,1716. Many descendants have settled in that
vicinity, and on the banks of the Hudson. Two of the
brothers, William and John, were married and remained
in Salem.

His school days were passed at the Franklin Academy,
North Andover, under the direction of Mr. Simeon Put-
nam, and at the private school of Mr. Samuel H. Archer
of Salem, noted in its day, for good discipline and for pre-
paring young men for the counting room and the active
duties of a mercantile business life. After leaving the
school, he entered the counting-room of Thomas P. Pin-
gree, Esq. ; whilst in thisemploy he made a business trip
to Para, S. A. Afterwards he embarked upon a seafaring
life and sailed with Capt. John Bertram in the ship Black
Warrior, for Zanzibar, in the employ of N. L. Rogers &
Brothers, pioneers in that trade; his father having been a
shipmaster, he soon rose to the same position and made
voyages to Zanzibar and other ports on the eastern coast
of Africa and the adjacent islands; also ports in the Red
Sea, continuing in the employ of the Rogers brothers ;
sailing in the Lady Sarah, Quill, and other vessels. Later
he was engaged in freighting, making voyages to New Or-
leans in the ship Newburyport, of which he was part
owner. About 1838, he retired from the sea; June 26,
1839, he became a member of the Essex County Natural
History Society, and soon after was placed on the com-
mittee on the Mollusca, and continued in charge of that
department until the various scientific collections contain-
ing some 140,000 specimens were deposited in the East
India Marine Hall, under the custody of the Trustees of

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 183

the Peabody Academy of Science, according to the terms
of an agreement signed May 29,1867, by the contracting
parties. Mr. King, being one of the signers, authorized
to act for the Essex Institute. Mr. King devoted much
time and study in the arrangement and Jabelling of the
specimens according to the approved system at that time.
For nearly thirty years this department was kept in good
condition, and had greatly increased from a small number
of specimens to one of larger proportions by donations and
exchange under his fostering care and prudent and dis-
creet management.

During the fifth decade of this century, this city and
its immediate vicinity had a goodly array of enthusiastic
and successful cultivators of the choicest gifts of Flora and
Pomona. Among these the name of Robert Manning
stands prominent as the pioneer in the cultivation of
fruits, especially the pear. In 1845, Mr. King made
drawings of the different varieties of pears that ripened in
Salem that season, the time of ripening, the peculiar qual-
ity of each, and other data respecting the same were care-
fully noted; the figures and notes respecting the new
varieties as introduced were carefully noted for several
years. These various notes and drawings are deposited
in the library of the Institute.

In 1852, the late Mr. Thomas Cole presented to the
Institute a Pritchard standard microscope with the neces-
sary accompaniments for practical use in the study of the
natural sciences, with the view that it might be an incen-
tive to the young student to resort to this aid in his studies.
Mr. King familiarized himself with the use of this instru-
ment, and having an artistic taste, made fine sketches
illustrative of vegetable growth and structure as discov-
ered through this powerful aid to the vision. Rev. John
Lewis Russell, the well-known cryptogamist, availed him-

184 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

self of the valuable services of Mr. King in the preparation
of illustrations to accompany his papers on the lichens and
other vegetable organisms. Some of the illustrations on
these subjects are deposited in the library of the Institute.

To show the increased use of the microscope, it might
be stated that at a social meeting of the Institute held on
Tuesday, May 1, 1866, its object being to bring together
all the microscopes that could be easily obtained for the
purpose of interesting the friends of the Institute in this
department of science, and also to celebrate in an appro-
priate manner the festival of May-day, Mr. C. M. Tracy,
of Lynn, spoke of the wild flowers before him, the pre-
cursors of a bloom that is to open onus in the garden,
the woodland and the wayside; Prof. O. W. Holmes, of
Boston, gave a brief sketch of the history of microscopy
and the later improvements in the structure of the micro-
scope. There were on exhibition, thirty instruments in
all, comprising twenty-five different styles of manufacture.

Mr. King was a member of the School Committee in
1854-58 (when the City Council elected the School
Board). He did good service, frequently visiting the
schools and familiarizing himself with all details and show-
ing a great interest in educational matters. He was for
several years a trustee of the Salem Athenzeum and was
an efficient member of the committee on the library.

He was a person of much intelligence, well posted in
current events, in the history of our own times, and to
some extent in general literature; and, though much re-
tired from general society, was fond of social intercourse
and conversation among old friends. He was _ per-
haps wore interested in scientific than in purely literary
subjects, being a constant lover of science in general, but
his attainments in the broad field of philological study, to
which he was much devoted at different periods of his

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 185

life, brought him an exact knowledge of several of the
leading languages, both living and extinct, which is by no
means to be overlooked.

Dr. WituiaM NEILson one of our venerable and highly
esteemed physicians, died, after a brief illness, at his resi-
dence in Salem, on Friday morning, May 3, 1889; he
was highly appreciated as a successful practitioner, a
genial friend, a gentleman of large intelligence; he was
one of the staff of physicians at the Salem Hospital from
its organization, April 7, 1873, till his death; a valued
member of the Crombie street church, also of the Essex
Congregational Club and always a constant attendant
upon its meetings. Asamember of the Essex Institute, he
was interested in its work, took part in all its proceedings,
and was placed on some of the standing, and frequently
upon special committees. He was a gentleman of a kindly
heart, and quiet genial manner, and will be missed greatly,
not only in his home circle, but in the community at large.

Dr. Neilson was born in Belfast, Ireland, October 1,
1808 ; son of William and Sarah (Madden) Neilson, both
of the county of Antrim, Ireland. His father was a watch-
maker and jeweler, and made the snuff boxes of bog oak
and diamonds presented by the Prince Regent to the allied
sovereigns after the downfall of Bonaparte. His grand-
father, Joseph Neilson, an architect, built the bridge of
Tuam, and was the grandson, according to family tradi-
tion, of a Scotch refugee nobleman who fled to Ireland
after the rising of 1715.

The family sailed for Philadelphia in 1818 ; the vessel was
wrecked on the coast of Nova Scotia, in consequence of
which their plans were changed, and they settled in Hali-
fax, N.S.

Dr. Neilson returned to Ireland when a young man,

186 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

afterwards studied in Edinburgh, and in 1855 took his
medical degree at Harvard; in early life being delicate in
health, he travelled much in the Brazils and in the coun-
tries bordering on the Mediterranean.

During his residence in Halifax, Dr. Neilson was the
leader of the little Sandemanian church, but finding that
his religions opinions and his unwillingness to take an
oath, was a bar to his prosperity there, he removed to
Salem about 1861, where he found a pleasant home, and
which he liked better than any other place he had seen,
except Edinburgh.

Dr. Neilson married Jan. 9, 1838, Susan Allen, born
in Dartmouth, N. S., October 13, 1816, died at Salem,
Mass., February 21, 1875; she was the daughter of John
and Sarah (Stayner) Allen, both of whom, as infants, left
Boston, after the evacuation, with their parents who were
united Empire Loyalists. They count descent from Cotton
Mather, and from Admiral Sir Richard Stayner who, as
Captain Stayner of the “Speaker,” served under Blake and
accomplished the famous cutting out expedition of Santa
Graz, April 19, 1657.

Admitted to membership, January 13, 1864.

Epwarp B. Pariures, secretary of the Essex Lodge,
No. 26, I. O. O. F., was born in Salem, December, 1822,
and died April 1, 1889; son of Samuel and Sarah (Car-
roll) Phillips; occupation, a tailor; initiated an Odd Fel-
low in Essex Lodge, Feb. 23, 1846; he was installed as
secretary in July, 1858, and held this office until the day
of his death. He was a man of sterling character and be-
loved by all who knew him, a faithful officer, and constant
attendant at the meetings; his familiar and genial face will
long be missed by his many firm friends and associates ;
he was stricken with apoplexy at his post of duty in the

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. ~ 187

lodge room, and passed away shortly after without appar-
ent suffering. At the time of his death he was also scribe
of Naumkeag Encampment, and secretary of the Salem
Charitable Mechanics’ Association. He has left a record
of faithfulness and fidelity as a lasting monument to the
many brothers who may be his successors.

Admitted to membership, March 8, 1854.

JOHN WaYLAND ROBERTS died at his residence, 23 For-
rester street, Salem, on Thursday morning, Sept. 6, 1888 ;
trader, of the firm of E. F. & J. W. Roberts. Mr. Rob-
erts was born in Peabody, Mass., April 3, 1838, son of
David and Susan (Vickery) Roberts. His father was one
of the old leather men of Peabody, his residence being on
Central street, his tannery and shop adjoining. Mr. Rob-
erts commenced business in Peabody ; soon after he formed
a partnership with Edward Foster Roberts, and with their
united capital they began to transact a business larger
than their expectations. About the time of the war, the
firm removed to Salem, opening on Essex street, midway
between the market and Central street, and, about 1867,
they bought out the stand on the corner of Washington
and Front streets, and removed thither, occupying the
store ever since. Mr. Roberts was a man of quiet and
retiring disposition, but exceedingly active, and a very
shrewd, careful business man; in addition to their retail
department, the firm did a large wholesale trade in fruits,
supplying many dealers, not only in Salem, but in the sur-
rounding towns, and by his efforts built up a large and
successful business. Hewasa member of the Essex Lodge,
F, A. M., and took a high standing in the order.

Admitted to membership in the Institute, June 9, 1864.

Evian Packarp Rosinson, son of Benjamin and Mary

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXI 13

188 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

(Packard) Robinson, born in East Bridgewater, Mass.,
May 19, 1817, died at Saugus, Sept. 2, 1888. He traced
his paternal ancestry to Gain Packard,! the original set-
tler, who was from Ireland, landed at Plymouth, lived in
Braintree, Pembroke, and finally in East Bridgewater,
where he died in 1763, aged 81 years. His wife was Mar-
garet Watson, by whom he had Joseph,? and other chil-
dren. Joseph? married Abigail Keith, 1746 ; Benjamin,?
born 1748, married Eve Packard, 1770; Benjamin,‘ born
1784, the father of the subject of this notice.

At the age of fifteen he shipped at New Bedford on a
three years’ whaling cruise; the results of his experience
and observations during this voyage were embodied in an
interesting paper, which he read at a regular meeting of
the Institute, March 24, 1882, entitled, “ What I know
about whaling.” From that time until bis thirty-third year
he followed the sea, in the various capacities on ship-board,
from the forecastle to the cabin, going to many of the prin-
cipal ports of Europe, East and the West Indies, when
he met with an accident, which produced a permanent
lameness, and thus necessitated a change in the character
of his future employment. He was obliged to confine him-
self principally to the use of the pen; among the positions
which he held were a clerkship of twenty-five years in the
office of the secretary of state; three years in the Charles-
town navy yard, etc., etc., in the meanwhile writing ar-
ticles for the newspaper press; at a field meeting of the
Institute, held in Saugus, Wednesday, Aug. 30, 1881, he
gave an account of “The old iron works,” Saugus,! also
“A notice of Saugus seminary,” dedicated in 1821.2. For
the five years immediately preceding his death he was a
confirmed invalid.

Admitted to membership, Feb. 7, 1876.

1See Hist. Coll. E.I., Vol. XVIII, 241.
2See Hist. Coll. E. I., Vol. XIX, 77.

ee eS ee ee

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 189

WILLIAM CROWNINSHIELD ROGERS, whose death occurred
in London, July 2, 1888, was prominently known in Bos-
ton business circles. It was only two months previous to
this announcement that he closed his house on Common-
wealth avenue, Boston, and went abroad for pleasure ; his
health was no more delicate than usual, and his death
came like a sudden blow to his many friends.

Mr. Rogers was the son of Hon. Richard Saltonstall and
Sarah (Crowninshield) Rogers, of Salem, and was born
in that city, July 26, 1823; he pursued his preparatory
studies at the Salem Latin School, then under the charge of
Oliver Carlton, and entered Harvard College in 1839; he
continued there until the spring of his junior year, when
he left and entered the merchant service, being principal-
ly engaged in the East India trade. A correspondent
sends to the Salem Gazette, Friday, July 6, 1888, the fol-
lowing : “ Early in life Capt. Rogers commanded the ship
“Thomas Perkins, one of the most lucky ships of Salem,
“making a much shorter passage to San Francisco than any
“of the ships at that season. He afterwards commanded
“the famous clipper Witchcraft, trading between Boston,
“San Francisco and China, and in all these voyages he
“was eminently successful.”

On the breaking out of the rebellion, he was among the
first to enlist, and saw much service, being stationed for
some time in the Gulf of Mexico.

His war record.—Vol. Lieut. U. S. N., August 12,
1861; ordered to command the U.S. bark W. G. Ander-
son, August 12, 1861; cruised in the West Indies; de-
tached and ordered to the command of U.S. 8. Huntsville,
April 21, 1862; in Eastern Gulf Squadron; command of
U.S. S. Iuka, Feb. 11, 1864; Vol. Lieut. Commander,
Oct. 24, 1864; Eastern Gulf Squadron ; detached and or-
dered on shore duty, June 15, 1865, until Aes 16, 1866.
Resigned July 18, 1866.

190 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Sometime previous to the breaking out of hostilities, he
had given up active business, and at the close of the war
he did not attempt its renewal. Always a sufferer from
lung troubles, he was obliged to take great care of himself.

He married, July 6, 1871, Mary Ingersoll Bowditch,
daughter of Nathaniel Ingersoll and Elizabeth Brown
(Francis) Bowditch, born in Boston, Sept. 4, 1838; died
at Funchal, Island of Madeira, Sept. 26, 1874, leaving
one child, William Bowditch Rogers, born at the Island
of Madeira, Sept. 14, 1874, who was with his father in
London at the time of his death.

In 1865, he received from Harvard college the degree
of A. B., and his name is enrolled among his college class-
mates of 1843.

By extensive travels and observation, combined with his
natural abilities, Mr. Rogers became a most congenial
companion, and had many warm friends in this vicinity.
The country has lost a worthy patriot, and those who knew
him, a sincere friend.

Admitted to membership, March 11, 1857.

Francis Wixiuis Tutrue died at his residence, 6 Ha-
thorne street, Salem, on Saturday morning, Nov. 10, 1888.
He was born in Salem, October 19, 1815, son of Willis
and Sarah (Grant) Tuttle.

For upwards of forty years he had been in the dry goods
business on Essex street; when a boy he entered the em-
ployment of the late Thomas W. Downing. Some years
after he reached manhood, he entered into partnership
with John Hammond, under the firm name of Hammond &
Tuttle; in later years he succeeded to the entire business.
He was long identified with the Salem Light Infantry and
had been a lieutenant in that corps, and was a member of
the S. L. I. Veteran Association, took a great interest and
held an official position in that organization. Mr. Tuttle

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 191

was a good citizen, modest and unassuming, and an hon-
orable business man.
Admitted to membership, July 6, 1864.

AARON Woop WarREN died at his home in Danvers
on Sunday morning, Feb. 19, 1889. He was a son of
Jonas and Hannah (Kimball) Warren and was born in Dan-
vers, Oct. 13, 1818.

His father, Jonas Warren, was son of Jonas and Aphia
(Stickney) Warren, and was born in North Beverly, July
29, 1787. About 1790 the family removed to Boxford,
and Jonas was brought up by his uncle Ancil Stickney ;1
he afterwards came to Danvers and soon found a place of
usefulness in the store kept by Deacon Gideon Putnam,
corner of High and Elm streets, at the Plains; in a few
years he bought the establishment, and by his industry,
broad and far-sighted manner of doing business, trans-
ferred a mere country cross road into a busy commercial
centre.

In 1841, he sold out at the Plains and removed to the
Port, where he became the pioneer in the wholesale flour
and grain business, entering into the large field with the
same energy and sagacity that he had displayed in previous
operations. He was the first to bring grain to the Port
by water, and from the cargoes of many vessels coming
and going, supplied a very extensive inland trade.

He was a director of the Naumkeag National Bank, Sa-
lem, from its organization until his death, at the age of
nearly ninety years, which occurred Nov. 18, 1876. He

1Captain Ancil Stickney, born June 3, 1762, was son of Jedediah and Margaret
(Tyler) Stickney. Helivedin the old Stickney mansion in Boxford; married there,
June 27, 1793, Mehitable, daughter of Nathaniel and Mehitable (Perley) Perley of
Boxford; born there April 9, 1767, and died Oct. 22, 1837. He died in Boxford,
March 27, 1835, leaving no children. The homestead, that had been in the family
for about one hundred and ten years, has passed out of the name.

192 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

was considered one of the best business men who ever
lived in Danvers.

His mother, Hannah Kimball, born in Boxford, March
23, 1787, was a daughter of Enoch and Huldah (Gould)
Kimball, a farmer.

Formerly, for many years, Mr. A. W. Warren carried
on the wholesale grain and retail grocery business in the
brick block at the Port. Some years since, having realized
a competency, he retired from active business. He mar-
ried, Nov. 24, 1844, Hannah P. Woodbury, who with their
only daughter, Anna Phippen Warren, survives.

Like his father he kept aloof from the arena of politics,
and had not held any public office. The business relations
of the father and son with the public had been such that
scarcely any persons were more widely known or more
respected and honored in the county of Essex than Jonas
Warren and his son, the subject of this notice. Their
strict integrity secured the confidence of all, and they have
left to their family a legacy of an untarnished name.

Admitted to membership, July 17, 1867.

Wittiam Low Weston, born in Brooklyn, Pa.,
April 17, 1817, died in Danvers, Mass., Feb. 1, 1889.
His father, Samuel Weston, removed from Brooklyn,
Conn., to Pennsylvania. The town in Pennsylvania was
named from the town in Connecticut. His mother, Julia
Horton, was daughter of Foster Horton, whose father was
a Presbyterian minister of Bottle Hill, N. J. He received
his early education in Baltimore, Md., and later, being of
studious habits, he pursued his studies by himself. He
came from Boston to Danvers in 1841, and was appointed
cashier of the Village, afterwards the First National, Bank,
and succeeded Samuel B. Buttrick, the first cashier; he
held this position until 1884, when he was succeeded by

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 193

the present cashier, B. F. Newhall. He married Louisa
Page, of Danvers, July 5, 1844. In 1850, he petitioned
- the legislature for the charter of the Danvers Savings Bank,
and was appointed the first treasurer, and to his earnest
efforts the success of the bank is largely due; he resigned
his position in 1884, and was followed by Israel H. Put-
nam; he was town treasurer for twenty-eight successive
years, resigning in 1881 or 82. He was the first treasurer
of the Gas Light Co., organized in 1860, and was con-
spicuously identified with the building of the Essex R. R.
to Lawrence. He was also one of the earliest and most
influential advocates for the introduction of the Middleton
water into Danvers, and, as treasurer, negotiated the sale
of the bonds to pay the cost of the works. During all his
residence in Danvers, he was closely identified with the
best interests of the town, and has been one of its foremost
citizens, filling these many important positions and filling
them well. Few amongst men have been more implicitly
trusted.
Admitted to membership July 16, 1866.

FREDERICK WInNSOR, a well known resident of Winches-
ter, Mass., died at Hamilton, Bermuda, Feb. 25, 1889,
whither he went with a view to the restoration of his health,
which had been failing for some months. The immediate
cause of death was pneumonia, and in accordance with his
own request, he was laid to rest on the lovely shores of
Bermuda.

Dr. Winsor was born in Boston, Oct. 2, 1829; son of
Thomas and Welthea (Sprague) Winsor. He pursued his
preparatory studies in the Boston Latin School, graduating
in the class that entered that school in 1842; he brought
to the college a thorough preparation and scholarly habits,
and was graduated at Harvard in the class of 1851, and at

194 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

the Harvard Medical School in that of 1855. In the same
year he established himself in Salem, where the earlier
years of his married life were spent, and where he secured,
at once, the reputation of a skilful, honest and judicious
practitioner ; he also identified himself with several of the
institutions that had been organized in Salem for the pro-
motion of the arts, sciences, literature and general culture,
doing good work and largely extending the sphere of their
operations for usefulness and progress.

In 1861, he received from Governor Andrew an appoint-
ment over the State Hospital at Rainsford Island ; leaving
Salem with many regrets from his friends there, he took
up his residence at the island, where he did excellent work,
until in 1862, when the demand for skilled medical ser-
vice in the war took him into the field; he enlisted in the
49th (Mass. ) Regiment, and served through the Louisiana
campaign of the next year. The record of his services in
the war is as follows: Surgeon, 49th Mass. V. M., Nov.
21, 1862. In camp at Long Island, N. Y.; sailed for
New Orleans, La., Jan., 1863; moved to Baton Rouge,
War, web. 17, as part of Gen. Augur’s Div. 9, A. C.;
marched to Port Hudson, La., May 20, and engaged in
its siege May 22—July 5; by boat to Donaldsonville, La.,
July 6; mustered out, Sept. 1, 1863.

In 1864, after a few months’ residence in Cambridge,
he established himself in the pleasant town of Winchester,
where the remainder of his life was spent, characterized
by a devotion to conscientiousness, fidelity, professional
ability, industry and public spirit. He had an extensive
practice and was considered one of the most prominent
citizens of the town; served on the school committee, was
on the town hall building committee, a director of the sav-
ings bank, and for many years a medical examiner for Mid-
dlesex county. As to his professional position, there was

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YFAR. Loo

no one more highly esteemed by his associates in the pro-
fession. His contributions to medical literature, such as
his reports to the State Board of Health upon “The Hy-
viene of School Houses,” in 1874, and upon “ Water sup-
ply, drainage and sewerage from the sanitary point of
view,” in 1876, are regarded by the profession as among
the most valuable results of the sanitary studies of these
later days.

Dr. Winsor was an essential factor in the organization
of the Unitarian church and society in Winchester, which
took place in November, 1865, when twenty-six of his
neighbors met by his invitation in his parlors, to hear one
of his personal friends conduct the simplest of religious
services. He stood in the closest relations and singular
sympathy with the first pastor, Rev. Richard Metcalf, and
thus was secured the future of liberal christianity, and for
more than twenty years his time and wisdom have been
devoted to the cause of the church. For twenty-one suc-
cessive years he was a member, and most of this time
chairman, of the standing committee, and also superintend-
ent or assistant superintendent of the Sunday School ;
always ready to give a lifting hand at the right time and
in the right place. The departure of such a man is a great
loss to any community.

Admitted to membership, April 4, 1855.

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BULLETIN

OF THE

PO OE MINS i Pee:

VOE UME XE,

1889.

SALEM, MASS:: .
PRINTED AT THE SALEM PRESS PUBLISHING AND PRINTING CO.,
1889.

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CONTENTS.

The Development of Crangon vulgaris.
plates I, II, III, by J. S. Kingsley,

Third paper with

New Phosphorescent Organs in Porichthys, by Frederick C.
Test,

Berlin: a study of Municipal Government in Germany, by Syl-
vester Baxter, ;.

Geological and Mineralogical Notes, Nol. Sodalite, by John
H. Sears,

On the age of the Andean Medal (with plate), by Samuel Gar-
man,

New Invertebrata from the Coast of California, by J. Walter
Fewkes, .

Annual Meeting, Monday, May 20, 1889, : F
Remarks of the president, 147; officers elected, 148; retro-
spect of the year, 149; meetings, 149; library, 150; museum,

164; fine arts, 165; treasurér’s report, 167; members de-
ceased, 168.

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